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It is difficult to overemphasize the role of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) in the world’s food economy. Potato has very great diversity and contributes to global food security, delivering more abundant starch on a hectare basis than any other edible crop. The constant failure of cereals to meet both local and international demands coupled with the rapid increase in food prices has increased the demand for potato, which is highly nutritious and easily grown. Gibson and Kurilich also postulated that potato is very nutritious as it serves as a good source of carbohydrates, high-quality proteins, vitamins, and minerals. According to Fernandes et al. 2005, it was found that potato has little fat, as well as phytochemicals, such as carotenoids and natural phenols. Ncobela et al. (2017), also suggested that the potato crop could be used in livestock feeding, fuel production, and industrial purposes. Similarly, Pedreschi et al. (2008), reported that almost 50% of the overall potato produced are been utilized in the manufacturing industry with over 70% of tubers used as chips and French fries in the US. Furthermore, Friedman (2006), reported that potato tubers contain numerous secondary plant metabolites which are useful components of the human diet. Potatoes also have beneficial health characteristics and increase glucose tolerance and sensitivity to insulin. It also decreases the concentrations of plasma cholesterol and triglycerides and thereby increasing lipid profiles and reducing the risk of infection (Carla et al., 2013). It is, therefore, not surprising that better attention has been given to potato production in recent years.
Get original essayPlant-parasitic fungi produce phytotoxins to initiate disease infection. For instance, Rhizoctonia solani produces a large number of hydrolytic enzymes including cellulases, pectinases, xylanases, and proteases (Olivieri et al., 2004), resulting in maceration of tissue and death of cells (Alghisi and Favaron, 1995). These dead tissues serve as the nourishing resource of the pathogen (Aveskamp et al., 2008). There is limited information on the function of phytotoxins in the growth and development of plants or in Rhizoctonia disease.
The management of the disease with synthetically derived pesticides has many side effects, such as pollution of underground water bodies and the environment. The indiscriminate misuse of these pesticides has also led to severe harmful effects on humans (Shoda, 2000) and plant chemical resistance growth. The increasingly harmful effects of synthetic pesticides and the development of chemical resistance by several plant pathogens have necessitated the development of alternative control strategies. This is to prevent the increasing shortfalls in annual crop productivity within the global agricultural sector, which consequently threatens global food security. This is crucial towards the introduction of integrated strategies to minimize the negative impact of excessive application of synthetic chemical-based products. Because phytotoxins are bioactive compounds, several studies have attempted to exploit its applications. Buiatti and Ingram (1991) recommended some phytotoxins as potential markers for screening disease-resistant plants due to their role in disease development. Also, Strobel et al. (1991) suggested that phytotoxins could be used as potential herbicide since they are toxic not only to crop plant but also to weeds and herbs. Phytotoxins are thought to play an important role in microbes entering plant tissues. In the final analysis, knowledge of the function and mechanisms of phytotoxin production, mode of activity, and their interactions with plant defense mechanisms will contribute to the creation of effective techniques to increase plant resistance to fungal pathogens. The review will be beneficial to crop producers as it will complement efforts to control the disease effectively.
The most harmful disease in potato production is the black scurf and stem canker potato disease caused by the soil-borne fungus Rhizoctonia solani Kühn (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk) (Kara and Arici, 2019). R. Solani does not develop asexual spores, but survives as sclerotia (dense asexual hyphal resting structures), mycelium (hyphal growth form), or asidiospores (Ajayi-Oyetunde and Bradley, 2018). Sclerotia from R. Solani are compact bodies of deposited melanized hyphae that are immune and help the pathogen survive for long periods under extremely serious conditions (Abbas et al., 2019). In potato-growing areas, the disease is popular. In temperate climates, however, its magnitude is higher than in the tropics. The disease causes the crop to suffer both quantitative and qualitative economic harm. Quantitatively, losses occur due to stem, stolon, and root infection, which decreases tuber size and number, whereas qualitative losses occur because the disease is frequently associated with malformed tubers and black scurf discolorations. Rhizoctonia solani does not only affect potatoes but the disease has destructive effects on many plants, including Rice, Maize, Wheat, Lettuce, Sugar beet, Cotton, Alfalfa, Peanuts, Soybeans (Ajayi-Oyetunde and Bradley, 2018), and Cowpea (Kankam et al., 2018). Stem canker is promoted by cool temperature as it delays emergence after planting. Isakeit (2011) postulated that non-infected seed tubers could be planted and potatoes could be rotated for 1-2 years in other to prevent and manage stem canker disease that causes a considerable effect on potato plants.
Potato Rhizoctonia diseases can be divided into two phases: cankers of Rhizoctonia, which are lesions of underground plant organs that can occur at any time during plant growth; and sclerotia deposition on the surfaces of tubers (Kara and Arici, 2019). The source of inoculum begins the life cycle of R. solani. Mycelia or sclerotia, present in soil or rotting plant matter in the field, or on the surfaces of seed tubers, maybe the inoculum source (Johnson and Leach 2020). The pathogen may occur saprophytically during mycelial development or can infect potato roots, stems, stolons, and tubers that develop. Brown to black sunken lesions are seen on sprouts, stolons, or roots shortly after plant emergence. These lesions may cause stem girdling, resulting in wilting and death.
Infection cushions on the surfaces of the host sprouts and roots are created by the pathogen, and penetration by the pathogen only takes place under favorable conditions in these areas. Lesions then mature and enter the vascular bundles under the infection cushions, where they develop into the symptoms of the 'canker'. Also, sprout-nipping a phenomenon whereby lesions girdle and kill young sprouts may occur (Johnson and Leach, 2020), and lead to poor plant emergence and sparse rooting in affected crops. Aerial tubers, upward leaf roll, chlorosis, and pigmentation of the purple leaf can be above-ground symptoms (Coca Morante, 2019). The infection process may occur, destroy or cause malformation and the 'cracking' of tubers on newly formed stolons.
Sclerotia grows on the daughter tubers (black scurf) at the end of the growing season, which is the most visible symptom. Among the anastomosis groups, AG-3 is the only member that is proven to cause an increased prevalence of black scurf on daughter tubers of potato (Woodhall et al., 2008). If the pathogen progresses into the sexual stage, a ‘white-collar’ generating basidiospores develop on stems just above the soil surface, but only AG3s are seen to undergo this stage on potatoes (Woodhall et al., 2008).
The yield effect on the potato variety by Rhizoctonia diseases depends on the R. solani strains, the potato cultivar, and environmental conditions. It was shown by Otrysko and Banville (1992) that R. solani AG-3 dramatically reduced overall and sellable crop yields and improved potato black scurf yields. It was also found by Hartill (1989) that R. solani infection resulted in a rise in the number of tubers attacked, as well as tubers growing on leaf axils, suggesting that stolon cankers obstruct the transport of photosynthetic products. Infection of tubers by R. Solani AG-3 was detected to be the source of dark skin spots on stored tubers prior to skin setting due to the deposition of the waterproofing waxy material in the tuber reaction.
Historically speaking, R. Solani, based on anastomosis reactions, was subdivided into subsets. It is dual-plated with tester isolates to establish the group of a new isolate and whether there is a merger between the hyphae of the two isolates, including a 'death zone' around the fusion, they are placed into the same group of anastomosis (AG) (Gondal et al., 2019). At present, 14 Rhizoctonia AGs have been identified, with so many subgroups based on a broad variety of characteristics, such as host range, virulence, molecular and biochemical features, and morphology (Samsatly et al., 2018; Kouzai et al., 2018; Picarelli et al., 2019). Together with other molecular and biochemical instruments, the advent of Polymerase Chain Reaction and rDNA sequencing has identified the genetic diversity of AGs. (Yang et al. 2017).
According to Muzhinji et al. (2015), strains of AGs 3, 1, 2-1, 9, 4, and 5 are economically important for potatoes in temperate climates across the globe while several isolates of R. solani AGs are related to underground potato organs. AG-3 is the most cosmopolitan group exhibiting disease symptoms in potatoes (Ito et al. 2017). The AG-3 subgroup is further divided into two subgroups with non-overlapping host ranges. AG 3 PT strains are virulent on potatoes, whilst AG 3 TB is virulent on tobacco (Ito et al. 2017). Wibberg et al. (2017) postulated that sexual spores of R. solani cause leaf lesions on potatoes, even though the functioning of basidiospores in disease etiology is not well understood. Date et al. (1984) also documented that R. solani AG-3 cause tomato foliar blight in Japan. Members of R. solani strains that are pathogenic to potatoes are non-obligate, and saprophytes that can consume a wide range of substrates. Though members of AG-3 are widely reported by many researchers to be linked with potato plants, isolates seen in potato fields in Maine were of diverse anastomosis groups (Bandy et al., 1984).
Effective functioning, nutrient transportation, and signaling of molecules within the colony are dependent on hyphal fusions in higher fungi. The fungus must have the capacity to target and recognize other hyphae in order for this process to occur. Hyphae prevent each other in a normal system in order to maintain a radiating, exploratory hyphal network. Anastomosis reactions, however, may be caused by environmental factors, especially nutrients. According to Carling (1996) R. solani, is known to influence anastomosis by the amount of available nutrients, particularly nitrogen.
Potato plants' soil-borne pathogens, such as R. Solani are popular in all regions of the world growing potatoes and have also invaded several plant species (Abdoulaye et al., 2019). This is due to the fact that the pathogens are distributed on seed tubers as potatoes are propagated vegetatively. Infection attributable to R. Solani can result from inoculum, either tuber-borne or soil-borne (Abdoulaye et al., 2019). The primary cause of infection is tuber-borne inoculum in organic potato development. Penetration and infection mode by R. Solani is well studied by numerous scholars. The mechanisms of infection and penetration depend largely on the isolate, anastomosis classes, plant organisms, and the nature of the plant parts formation (Murray, 1982).
R. Solani has reduced movement due to a lack of spores and persists in harsh environments by the development of sclerotia or latent mycelia (Johnson and Leach, 2020) that can live for many years in plant residues and soil (Šiši? et al. 2018). Peters et al. (2003) stated that in the absence of host plants, the inoculum levels are lower as R. solani population declines with time leading to more years between potatoes cropping. A wide range of crops including carrot, eggplant, radish, and oats have been reported as alternative hosts to R. solani of AG-3 via the development of epiphytic connections with these crops (Carling et al., 1986). The development of hyphae and sclerotia on other alternative crops makes the selection of crops for rotation key in potato production. In conditions that delay the growth of new shoots, especially in cold, moist soils, and acid-to-neutral soils, Rhizoctonia disease is prevalent (Johnson and Leach, 2020). AG-3s have been found to cause more harm at 10 ° C or low temperatures to potato plants than at higher temperatures (Johnson and Leach, 2020), and temperatures above 25 ° C have been shown to inhibit the severity of canker (Anderson, 1982).
Phytotoxins are microbial secondary metabolites produced by a pathogen in culture or in infected plant tissues which are toxic to plants. Thus, microbial toxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungal species. During the invasion of plant tissues by microbes, these metabolites are produced to enable them to penetrate and colonize the plant tissues.
The chemical structure of phytotoxins varies from simple molecules to relatively complex molecules. Whilst Liang and Zheng (2012) isolated polyketide-based lactones from the genus Rhizoctonia, Pedras et al. (2005) isolated complex cyclic peptides demonstrating the wide variety of chemical configurations of phytotoxins. Phenylacetic acid (1) and hydroxy (2-3) and methoxy (4) derivatives of PAA, benzoic acid (5), and Nb-acetyltryptamine (6) plant growth regulator synthesis have been reported as essential metabolites of R. Solani infection processes on different plants (Hu et al., 2018). Other scholars have also described most carboxylic acids, including PAA and MeO-PAA, as phytotoxins exhibiting non-specific action against rice. (Liang and Zheng, 2012). Kankam et al. (2016a) also isolated toxic compounds such as 3-methylthiopropionic acid (3-MTPA) and 3-methylthioacrylic acid (3-MTAA) which caused harm to potato plants as they trigger stem canker without the presence of R. Solani isolates (Kankam et al., 2016b). Additionally, secondary metabolites that are harmful to plants are produced by formae speciales of Fusarium oxysporum. It is suspected that they are important in the pathogenicity of wilted diseases. The toxins produced by these pathogens are fusaric acid created by F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense on banana and a polypeptide toxin produced by F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfection on cotton (Thangavelu et al., 2001; Bell et al., 2003). Spore germination fluids of Aternaria brassicola are considered to be phytotoxic (Cook et al. 1997). In another analysis, the germination percentage of the seeds was decreased by 24 hours when soybean seeds were soaked in the fungal filtrates of Fusarium solani, Aspergillus niger, Alternaria terreus (Strobel, 1982; Ibraheem et al., 1987). This shows that phytotoxins were released into the media in which they were grown. Dong et al. (2012) also postulated that both crude toxin and pure fusaric acid isolated from Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense race 4 produced disease symptoms on banana seedlings almost the same with those of pathogen infection. There is also one published report in maize, where only fumonisin-producing strains of Fusarium verticillioides caused disease symptoms on seedlings without the presence of the fungus, and that treatment with purified fumonisin alone was enough to produce the same symptoms (Williams et al., 2007).
Rhizoctonia solani may enter the host through mechanical means or with the aid of enzymes or toxins (Hu et al., 2018). The deleterious effect of phytotoxins produced by R. solani on plants cannot be overemphasized. For example, Lai et al. (1968) found in their studies that Rhizoctonia solani produces phytotoxins which may result in changes of permeability in infected cell membranes and the breakdown of the cell wall of Phaseolus aureus. Yoder (1980) has stated that one of the main factors involved in the growth of canker caused by R. solani is phytotoxin in seedlings of beans. Again, Wyllie (1962) postulated that the development of symptoms in host tissue before hyphal colonization could be due to the production of phytotoxic substances by R. solani. Phenylacetic acid (PAA), three hydroxy (OH-), and one methoxy (MeO-) derivative of (PAA) as produced by R. Solani is found to be crucial in the process of plant parasitism and infection (Hu et al., 2018). The role of PAA and its derivatives in plant growth-regulating activities and phytotoxicity on other plant species have been reported (Hu et al., 2018). However, in previous studies, conflicting findings and methodological limitations on the basic role of PAA in the production of Rhizoctonia disease and the optimum concentrations required to induce disease in their host are unclear (Betancourt and Ciampi, 2000). The role of OH- and MeO- derivatives of PAA in the growth and development of plants or Rhizoctonia disease is lacking. PAA has also been shown to have antimicrobial properties and to inhibit R. solani growth and this is contradictory to Ding et al. (2008) observations that the fungus develops and metabolizes PAA.
Lakshman et al., (2006) reported that derivatives of PAA such as PAA and the OH and MeO are absorbed by R. solani from phenylalanine via the pathway of shikimate. Hermann and Weaver (1999) indicated that this route includes two metabolic intermediates with the carbon metabolism pathway of quinic acid (QA), which is caused by the presence of QA in the growth substrate as it is discharged from lignin in the rotting plant material. The transition between the parasitic and saprobic phases of this fungus' life cycle can be regulated by the interaction of these metabolic pathways. The activation of the QA pathway has recently been shown to contribute to the sequestration of intermediates from the shikimate pathway, which reduces the development of the PAA precursor phenylalanine in R. Solani and other fungal filaments (Liu et al., 2003a). Liu et al. (2003b) have stated that it reduces the pathogenicity of R. solani when the metabolic processes within the fungus are disrupted by the addition of QA-containing substrates from host crops.
R. solani disease management strategy aimed at altering fungal metabolism giving an innovative idea as existing practices such as the use of fungicides are essentially based on reducing fungus populations (Sweetingham, 1996). An expanded awareness of R. solani metabolism will result in the production of more successful and advanced disease suppression methods, thus enhancing the health of plants. The various control measures for Rhizoctonia potato disease include the following:
For use as possible biocontrol agents, bacteria, fungi, and mycophagous soil fauna have all been tested (Bagy et al., 2019; Jiang et al., 2019). Rhizoctonia antagonistic bacteria such as Bacillus pp. (Schreiter et al., 2018) and Pseudomonas species (Yu et al., 2017) were successfully used as bioagents in Rhizoctonia disease management. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) that are closely associated with plant root systems have a net beneficial effect on plant health and were used for disease control (Gouda et al., 2018; Xiang et al. 2017b; Abbas et al., 2019). In addition to direct pathogen inhibition, rhizobacteria prevent Rhizoctonia diseases by inhibiting the development of pathogens in plant tissues, preventing the creation of parasite complexes, and enhancing plant defenses. Diallo et al. (2011) also confirmed that the potato rhizosphere has been widely colonized by Pseudomonas spp. in particular P. fluorescens and P. putida, and is heavily expressed in the root internal microenvironment. Several strains of Pseudomonas spp. are regarded as PGPR, which contributes to plant health either indirectly by reducing the development and/or activity of organisms detrimental to plant health or sequestering heavy metals (Van Loon and Glick, 2004). The combination of required physical niche and biocontrol ability makes members of the Pseudomonas genus great contenders for the regulation of Rhizoctonia diseases.
Most of the Bacillus spp. Inclusive B. subtilis, B. thurigiensis, and B. cereus have been described as effective methods to manage Rhizoctonia disease (Abbas et al., 2019; Madhavi et al. 2018). Strains from many Bacillus species are again proven to help cause mediated systemic resistance in a number of plant species and provide defense against Rhizoctonia disease (Mekonnen and Fenta, 2020). Gururani et al. (2013) found that when plant growth promoters of rhizobacteria are embedded in potato field soils, they increase the resistance of abiotic stress in the crop by triggering changes in the expression of ROS-scavenging enzymes and by stimulating photosynthetic efficiency. Tomilova et al. (2020) have also found that the use of B. bassia for the treatment of potato tubers before planting decreased Rhizoctonia infection in potato stolon and stems. Commercialized biopesticides like Botrycid, Sublic, and Rhizo Plus have been reported to be potent against Rhizoctonia solani (Abbas et al., 2019). Below are bioactive compounds with antimicrobial properties against Rhizoctonia solani.
Cultural practices are the most widely recommended and utilized option in managing disease incidence in several places of the world (Katan, 2010). These include; (i) crop rotation (ii) field sanitation by elimination of diseased potato plants, (iii) fallow, (iii) flooding, (iv) weed control during the first 3 weeks of potato emergence, (v) crops with antagonistic effect, and (vi) the addition of organic amendments (Arici and Sanli, 2014).
Crop rotation is among the most efficient and less expensive management methods for farmers in developing countries (Bridge, 1996). Crop rotation has in many instances appeared to be beneficial in managing R. solani disease affecting potatoes worldwide as it can have overwhelming effects on crops grown in multiple consecutive years and decrease in inoculum levels due to the absence of preferred hosts (Larkin and Brewer, 2020). According to Adesiyan et al., (1990), susceptible crops are rotated with resistant or completely immune crops in crop rotation. Larkin et al. (2010) indicated in Canada that 2 –year cropping systems, it seemed that potatoes grown after red clover were showing less black scurf compared to potatoes grown after barley or Italian ryegrass. It is also recorded that ryegrass and barley rotation significantly reduced the incidence of Rhizoctonia disease in potatoes (Larkin and Brewer, 2020). The above report indicates that these crops are appropriate choices for crop rotation in disease control and management.
Among the several measures required for an efficient disease management strategy in the controlled environment and that of the field is sanitation. Sanitation involves any procedure that aims to discourage the transmission of plant diseases by eliminating diseased and asymptomatic contaminated tissue, as well as contaminating tools, equipment, and washing hands.
Antagonistic crops produce antihelminthic compounds (Grainge and Almed, 1988) which contain toxic substances that can destroy or kill fungal pathogens after plant invasion (Karban, 2011). Certain plants produce toxic exudates that directly kill fungi, whilst in other plants; fungi fail to complete their life cycle after the invasion of the plant tissue. Plants that exhibit this type of antagonism are often known as trap crops.
Chemical control comprises the application of botanical or organic synthetic compounds that have a killing, inhibiting, or repulsive effect on injurious organisms threatening mankind and animals (Oudejans, 1991). There is also a published report of disease management options against stem canker and other fungal diseases with the use of fungicides (Kataria et al., 1991). For example, Chen et al. (2019) indicated that seed-treated fungicides like Vertisan EC1.67, Elatus 45WG, Regalia 5SC, Priaxor 4.17SC, and Quadris 2.08SC were potent in controlling potato Rhizoctonia diseases. Similarly, Johnson et al. (2000) also postulated that when potato plants were treated with dimetomorph, propamocarb, and cymoxanil after disease infection, it considerably decreased the sporulation of Phytophthora infestans on plants.
However, there are no chemicals registered to control R. solani in potato, and chemical control for stem canker diseases is often expensive and not stable in the field. Isakeit (2011) reported that commercial growers can also use fungicides at planting, either to treat the seed tubers or as an in-furrow soil treatment against stem canker. The use of selective fungicides has been found to increase the resistance to Rhizoctonia solani. Several chemical products have been specifically developed to combat seed-borne potato diseases as well as provide broad-spectrum control for Rhizoctonia, Silver Scurf, and Fusarium Dry Rot diseases (Wharton et al., 2007). These chemical products include Quadris (a.i. azoxystrobin), Maxim 4FS (a.i. fludioxinil), Tops MZ (ai. thiophanate-methyl), and other Maxim formulations Mancozeb (Wharton et al., 2007). The general effect of these seed treatments and the in-furrow fungicides applied are recognized in the crop growth and crop vigor, but intermittently, the use of seed treatments in conjunction with cold and wet soils can contribute to delayed seed growth (Wharton et al., 2007).
Study goals call for new methods of defense that are consistent with sustainable cultivation, thus promoting the usage of complementary methods, such as the use of bio-organic fertilizers in the management of stem cankers (Diallo et al., 2011). Fungicides pose problems in areas of low rainfall. For instance, in regions where planting dates must coincide with rainfall, fields are often too dry to be treated effectively before the rains come. However, the effectiveness of these chemicals depends on the time of application, climate, and knowledge of nematode population dynamics.
Over-reliance on the use of fungicides to control fungi increases production costs exposes farmers to toxic chemicals and reduces the efficiency of the chemicals. Moreover, certain microorganisms in the soil may develop resistance to the chemical and break it down to harmless products (Seong et al., 2017). Considering the numerous disadvantages of chemical control, and the limited possibility of its applications by small-scale farmers, the need for an alternative control is necessary.
Plants possess many attributes which allow them to either resist infection or to withstand aggressive growth and feeding of pathogens (Nürnberger and Lipka, 2005). The existence of mechanical barriers such as fur, spikes, resins, and waxes on the cuticle, as well as thick cell walls on the plant surface, are the first defense barriers that pathogens must surpass in order for infection to occur (Nürnberger et al., 2004). These mechanical barriers prevent pathogen entry, while chemical defenses are triggered when they turn out to be defective (Nürnberger and Lipka, 2005).
An extensive range of secondary chemical compounds, which defend the host from pests and pathogens, are primarily exhibited in healthy plants, either in their active state or as inactive precursors ready to react when tissue integrity is compromised (Morrissey and Osbourn, 1999). The inhibitory effect of plant compounds such as catechols (Osbourn, 1996a) is so high that the inhibitory effect reaches the host surface from the initial point of synthesis, blocking pathogen development or repulsing pathogens and other pests (Osbourn, 1996a). However, in many instances, advanced pathogens can resist or even use these toxic chemicals as a reference to the host or as nutrients (Bennett and Wallsgrove, 1994; Osbourn, 1996b). Preformed inhibitors are generally located in cells immediately below the plant surface; within plant cell vacuoles and other organelles, and many are tissue-specific (Bennett and Wallsgrove, 1994). Bennett and Wallsgrove (1994) in their studies found that saponins, terpenoids, sugar-containing phenolic, phenols, sulfur-containing compounds, glucosinolates, and cyanogenic glucosides have antibiotic properties.
Biologically active secondary metabolites, including pepper, tomato, eggplant, and tobacco, are abundant in the Solanaceae. These poisonous metabolites also shield the plant from minor diseases and pests, such as herbivorous insects, and cause medical issues to animals, including humans, at large doses. The two most common glycoalkaloids in potatoes are ?-chaconine and ?-solanidine. Symbiotically, they prevent the growth and germination of many essential pathogenic fungi, including R. solani, when plants are grown under controlled conditions (Fewell and Roddick, 1997).
Among the other management approaches mentioned, the application of organic modifications has been proposed by many mycologists. Research findings have proven that organic modifications are effective for controlling soil-borne fungal plant pathogens, including Rhizoctonia spp. (Arici and Sanli, 2014). According to Amadioha (2003), they are quickly degraded, and pollution-free; they leave no hazardous traces, are cheaper, and not dangerous to living organisms. In all cases, the materials are added to the soil in a dry or fresh state (Sikora and Fernàndez, 2005). Several studies have shown that the incorporation of selected organic matter amendments in biocontrol treatments has improved the inhibiting ability of either component alone. (Scheuerell et al., 2005; Pugliese et al., 2011). This confirms the theory that Rhizoctonia diseases are regulated by a limited number of soil microorganisms (Hoitink and Boehm, 1999). As a result, changes to organic matter can only eradicate these pathogens if they can sustain populations of suppressive species already found in soil or strains that are added simultaneously with the amendment.
The mechanisms by which suppressive agents control diseases are through competition with pathogens for nutrients (Raviv, 2008), the production of antibiotics harmful to pathogens (Craft and Nelson, 1996), and the activation of a plant defense response (systemic acquired resistance or induced systemic resistance) in plants (Nelson and Boehm, 2002). Phytotoxic compounds can also be generated by establishing anaerobic conditions and reducing the propitiousness of soil conditions to the pathogen or by means of different salts and toxins (Hoitink et al., 1991; Hoitink et al., 1997). The use of composts has also proved to decrease the population of several soil-borne pathogens including Fusarium spp. and R. solani (Bonanomi et al., 2020; Escuadra and Amemiya, 2008) and improved soil fertility based on the type of organic material used (Kallah and Adamu, 1998). Bonanomi et al. (2020) reported that pam compost, biochar, the fiber of coconut, sawdust, peat, and cellulose decreased Rhizoctonia populations.
The benefits of using organic soil amendments as soil additives are widely reported
Cholera is an acute diarrheal disease caused by Vibrio Cholerae bacterium, transmitted via ingestion of contaminated water or food. Worldwide it is estimated to each year cause between 1, 3 to 4 million cases, and between 21000 to 143000 deaths. In 2016, 54% of cases were reported from Africa, 13% from Asia and 32% from Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti). Most infected will have a mild disease or even asymptomatic. These cases are easily treated with oral rehydration solution. Severe cases occur in those that become severely dehydrated, becoming at risk of shock. In such cases prompt volume resuscitation is needed and antibiotics should be provided to reduce duration of diarrhoea, to reduce volume of rehydration needed and to decrease the amount of V. cholerae excreted in stool.
Get original essayThe Cholera outbreak of Haiti emerged in October of 2010, in the aftermath of the January 2010 earthquake. This natural disasters effect on the country´s already strained healthcare and sanitary infrastructure, added to the influx of foreign aid workers from regions with endemic cholera outbreaks are believed to be important factors of its emergence in Haiti.
The data shows that since the emergence of Cholera in Haiti in October 2010, there has been a total of 819, 000 suspected cases and 9, 769 total deaths as of May 2018. This makes it the largest modern outbreak of Cholera, until it was surpassed by the 2016-2017 Yemen outbreak, although it is still the most deadly modern outbreak. The incidence in Haiti has been steadily decreasing in the past years, but although national and WHO measures are in place, eradication has not yet been accomplished. Studies examining the DNA fingerprinting and genotyping of the isolated V. Cholera in Haiti combined with the correlation of the arrival of a Nepalese UN battalion with the time and place of the outbreak makes it possible to conclude that the strain was likely imported and released into the environment by the mentioned UN contingent. This was denied by the UN for several years, until they issued an apology in 2016.
Epidemiological studies, local observations and genetic studies of the Cholera strains all point to the most likely cause of the epidemic being the introduction of the pathogen into the environment by the Nepalese UN battalion. Interestingly, the UN denied this fact for over 5 years, and produced their own report about the outbreak and its origins. Having not gone as far as gathering information about the credentials, independence or objectivity of the researchers behind this report, any statements regarding the basis of their approach is impossible. However, it does seem that its conclusions may lack validity, seeing as virtually all other research in the matter has come to a different conclusion. The organizations denial and response has been criticized, and perhaps rightfully so seeing as the UN has a history of denial in a similar situation, during the Kosovo conflict.
Vibrio cholera is a comma-shaped gram-negative rod. They are highly motile organisms that exists naturally in aquatic environments. It is a diverse species that include pathogenic and non-pathogenic variants, only cholera-toxin producing strains are capable of causing Cholera. Classification is done according to structure of the O-antigen of its lipopolysaccharide. More than 200 serogroups have been reported, but only serogroups O1 and O139 have been associated with large scale epidemics. V. cholera O1 is the cause of the current global pandemic and it can be divided into two biotypes, El Tor and classical.
In order for infection to occur, V. cholerae must survive the acidic environment of the stomach, colonize the small intestine, and produce the cholera toxin that causes massive fluid secretion into small intestine.
Cholera is assumed to be vastly underreported, but there is an estimated 1, 3 to 4 million cases, and between 21000 to 143000 deaths attributed to V. Cholerae annually. It primarily affects resource-limited regions with inadequate access to clean water sources. In 2016, 54% of cases were reported from Africa, 13% from Asia and 32% from Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti). Cholera is endemic to approx. 50 countries, mostly in Africa and Asia. Epidemics have occurred throughout Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Americas, and can be particularly extensive. As an example, the strain seen in the Haiti epidemic has been subsequently associated with outbreaks in neighboring countries of Dominican Republic, Cuba and Mexico.
Patterns of infection and transmission generally differs between areas that are historically endemic or epidemic. Areas of high endemicity typically has a seasonal distribution with peaks before and after rainy seasons, and highest incidence occurring in children younger than five, reflecting a lack of immunity in children. In areas of high epidemicity there is more limited immunity in the population as a whole, reflected in the more similar incidence in adults and children. However, in endemic regions there may be superimposed epidemics. An example is the devastated infrastructure in Yemen after years of warfare, which led to two sequential outbreaks in 2016 and 2017. The second of these outbreaks led to the worst cholera outbreak to date, with approx. 500. 000 cases and 2000 associated fatalities within just four months.
The transmission of V. cholera is primarily via the ingestion of contaminated food or water. Water is an important reservoir in endemic regions, and because the bacteria can live on plankton, filtration of water is important to reduce incidence. It is thought that in epidemics, the person-to-person transmission of hyperinfectious V. cholera is essential in the rapid propagation.
Cholera is a disease that is can be extremely virulent. In most cases, the presentation is mild or asymptomatic. It has an incubation period of one to two days typically. The classical presentation is voluminous watery (rice-water) stool. It may have a typical fishy odor. The diarrhea is usually painless without tenesmus, and may reach an output of as much as 1L per hour in severe cases. Vomiting and abdominal discomfort also may occur, but fever is uncommon. May be indistinguishable from other types of gastroenteritis.
In severe disease, rapid hypovolemia and electrolyte loss is a feared result, and in fatalities there has been reported an median time between onset of symptoms to death of about 12 hours. Approximately 5% of patients develop the severe course of the disease.
In mild to moderate disease, oral rehydration solution (ORS) is the gold standard, and can successfully treat about 80% of cases of cholera. In mild disease, the administrated volume should be equal to the assessed volume loss. In moderate disease, adults should be administered between 2200-4000ml in the first 4 hours. In severe disease, rehydration occurs in two phases: IV rehydration and ORS. IV rehydration in accomplished using Ringer’s lactate at the rate of 50ml per kg the first hour, then lowered. The ORS should be started as soon as the patient is able to drink. Antibiotics is indicated in severe cases, to decrease the duration of vomiting, the amount of rehydration needed and to reduce the amount of V. cholera shed in stool.
On the 12th of January 2010, the earthquake and humanitarian disaster occurred causing between 100, 000 to 316, 000 casualties and devastating public infrastructure such as sewage and drinking water, already lacking prior to the natural disaster. On October 19th, reports of unusually high incidence of patients with acute watery diarrhea and dehydration are received by the Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population (MSPP). Vibrio cholera serogroup O1, serotype Ogawa and of biotype El Tor is isolated from specimens. The cases were first reported from the Arbonite and central departments, but cases were occurring in 7 out of 10 departments and in the Capital of Port Au Prince by mid-November. By this time there were 16, 111 persons hospitalized with acute watery diarrhea and 992 cholera deaths reported.
An effort to identify the origins of the outbreak was quickly mounted, as there had not been a Cholera epidemic in Haiti in the previous century although isolated outbreaks in other countries of the Americas had been observed. Initially, the earthquake was theorized to be the cause of the outbreak, but eventually rumors surfaced of a Nepalese contingent of the UN having imported the epidemic. This contingent arrived from the 8th of October, and underwent medical examination before departure. However, stool samples were only acquired when clinically indicated and it is noted in the UN report that there were no cases of diarrhea before or during this contingents tenure in Haiti. The UN camp in question was located close to the village of Meille, along a stream that empty into Artibonite river. Cases of the disease started to appear downstream in the Arbonite river delta, presumably fascilitated by the fact that this river has been known to be used for bathing and as drinking water for villages along its path, in addition to irrigation in agriculture. The UN has blamed an independent contractor for inadequately removing sewage, but there should also be mentioned that Haitian epidemiologists observed several sanitary deficiencies in the UN camp, including a pipe discharging sewage into the river.
It is believed that the first case of the Haitian cholera epidemic was a 28 year old man of the town Mirebalais. He was reported to have had an untreated psychiatric illness for years, and despite having access to clean water at his home, he was reportedly commonly seen walking nude through the town during the day, and be both bathing and drinking from the Latem river. This river is fed by the Meye river, believed to be the source of the cholera outbreak. On 12th of October 2010 this man developed profuse watery diarrhea, and was attempted to be treated conservatively with oral fluids by his family at his home. They did not seek medical attention, and the man died less than 24 hours after the onset of symptoms. Two persons preparing this man for his wake reportedly also developed watery diarrhea. The first hospitalized case of cholera occurred in Mirebalais on the 17th of October 2010.
Compared to the capital city of Port-au-Prince, with 3 million of the country´s total population of 10 million, Mirebalais is a small town with 90% unemployment. In the time period of the epidemics beginning, there were only unpaved roads and the town was largely isolated from the rest of the country. This can explain why it took time to mount any response to the epidemic that stemmed from this area, as it wasn’t exactly an area focused upon.
On the 18th of October, a Cuban medical brigade reported a large increase in acute watery diarrhea to the Haitian health authorities, with a total of 61 treated cases in the preceding week in Mirebalais. On this very same day, the situation worsened with 28 new admissions and 2 deaths. In this same time-period the water systems of the Mirebalais town were being repaired, and the inhabitants were using the river as a water source. It should also be noted that prisoners drank water from the river downstream from Meille. 34 cases and 4 deaths were recorded in this prison with no other probable cause discovered. On the 31st of October the sanitary deficiencies of the UN camp were resolved, and the incidence in Mirebalais started to decrease.
Prior to 19th of October there were no recorded cases in the lower Artibonite. On this same day, 3 children died of acute watery diarrhea and by the 31st of October there were 3020 cases and 129 deaths recorded. While not directly connected to the Artibonite river, the epidemic also spread to the capitol of Port-au-Prince. Here, the epidemic had two phases. As cases where arriving from the Artibonite delta to Port-au-Prince from October 22nd through November 5th, the incidence were quite moderate with only 76 daily cases on average. Then, there were an explosion in cases mostly occurring in Cite-Soleil, a slum area of the city. Despite this, the incidence was considerably lower than in other parts of Haiti [(0. 51% until November 30, compared with 2. 67% in Artibonite, 1. 86% in Centre, 1. 4% in North-West, and 0. 89% in North) and equally the cholera-related mortality rate (0. 8 deaths/10, 000 persons in Port-au-Prince, compared with 5. 6/10, 000 in Artibonite, 2/10, 000 in Centre, 3. 2/10, 000 in North, and 2. 8/10, 000 in North-West)].
Initially, the epidemic was spreading quickly with over 285. 000 cases and 4865 deaths by March 2011. By March 2012 there had been in total 531. 000 cases and 7050 deaths since the outbreak, leaving more than 5% of the population affected. There were 112. 076 cases and 894 deaths in 2012. There is a progressive decline in the following years. In 2013 there were 58. 809 cases and 593 deaths. In 2014, from 1st of January to 30th of November, there were 21. 916 cases and 244 deaths, a 66% reduction from the same period in the previous year. In January to December 2015, there were 36. 045 cases (24% increase) and 322 deaths (5% increase).
In 2016 there were a total of 41421 cases and 446 deaths, an increase from the previous year related to rain? There were a sharp decline in 2017 to 13681 cases and 159 deaths. From the beginning of the epidemic to May 2018, the total cumulative cases amounted to 819. 000 and the cumulative death toll to 9769.
Although facing mounting pressure and increasing evidence saying otherwise, the UN publically downplayed its role in the Cholera crisis that is still unresolved in Haiti. Initially the organization denied any wrong-doing. It published its own report about the epidemic, which concluded that ”the introduction of this cholera strain as a result of environmental contamination with feces could not have been the source” and ”the Haiti cholera outbreak was caused by the confluence of circumstances as described, and was not the fault of, or deliberate action of, a group or individual”. Furthermore the report states that the actual origin is no longer relevant in the context of controlling the outbreak.
However, after more than 5 years of denying any responsibility or involvement, in August of 2016 the UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon publically apologized for the UN´s role in the epidemic. Although not admitting any legal responsibility for the epidemic, the UN announced a 400 million dollar fund aimed at relief for affected Haitians. As of April of 2018, the UN has been criticized for its efforts. The previously mentioned fund had only managed to raise a staggering 8. 7 million dollars, equal to 2. 2% of the projected 400 million. Also, apparently only half of this amount has found its way to its intended recipients. The UN has in later years been taken to court by both affected Haitians and NGO´s in an effort to receive compensation for the victims, but the organization has claimed immunity. Although this has been criticized as exhibiting an untouchable attitude, their claims for immunity has been upheld in U. S. courts. Interestingly, this is not the first case of UN claiming immunity. A similar situation occurred involving lead-poisoning of Roma people in Kosovo displaced by the war in the region, where exposure occurred over several years in temporal UN-refugee camps. No financial compensation or a real apology was issued.
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Get custom essayThe WHO has resources in place to respond quickly to suspected cases, to monitor and prevent new cases. From January to June of 2018 they provided rapid response to 4, 408 cases, equal to 86% of all suspected cholera cases and 94% being within 48 hours. In the same time period they provided vaccination to nearly 600, 000 people and water treatment products to approximately 60, 000 households. In order to continue the decline in incidence of Cholera in Haiti, adequate sanitation, access to clean drinking water and preventive sensitization in high-risk areas are essential. As an example, two dose vaccination regimen with killed, bivalent, whole-cell oral Cholera provided a 4-year 76% protection according to a case-control study in Haiti. On February of 2013, the Haitian government announced its own national plan for the eradication of cholera within the period of 2013-2022. While complete eradication is yet to be accomplished, it may soon be within reach as new cases has fallen from 170, 000 in the last months of 2010 to 2, 842 cases as of August 2018. A study by Renaud Piarroux et al stated that “Our epidemiologic study provides several additional arguments confirming an importation of cholera in Haiti. There was an exact correlation in time and places between the arrival of a Nepalese battalion from an area experiencing a cholera outbreak and the appearance of the first cases in Meille a few days after. The remoteness of Meille in central Haiti and the absence of report of other incomers make it unlikely that a cholera strain might have been brought there another way. DNA fingerprinting of V. cholerae isolates in Haiti and genotyping corroborate our findings because the fingerprinting and genotyping suggest an introduction from a distant source in a single event”.
The word “epiphany”, literally meaning “showing forth”, is originally a Biblical term, referring to the festival commemorating the manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, often called the “Magi”, usually celebrated on 6th January, or Twelfth Night. On this day there is a Church feast celebrating the coming of the “three Kings of the Orient” to worship the baby Jesus. The word, however, is adapted by James Joyce to encompass his artistic vision, first expressed in the Preface to the “Dubliners”, and then defined in more detail in “Stephen Hero”, his first autobiographical story, almost destroyed by him, and then published as a fragment after his death. In “Stephen Hero”, Stephen, planning a book of epiphanies, tells us that “by an epiphany he meant a sudden spiritual manifestation, whether in the vulgarity of speech or of gesture or in a memorable phase of the mind itself. He believed that it was for the man of letters to record these epiphanies with extreme care, seeing that they themselves are the most delicate and evanescent of moments”. An epiphany, therefore, in Joyce’s sense, “shows forth” the full reality of what is seen and observed, but not in logical, analytical form. The reality appears to the mind in a flash of inspiration, triggered by an ordinary conversation or incident.
Get original essayAll Joyce’s writings, including his early ones like “Chamber Music” or “Dubliners”, is thought to consist of a series of epiphanies. What makes “A Portrait of the Artist” different from these is that before “A Portrait” was published, Joyce’s works consisted of essentially isolated epiphanies. “A Portrait” is the first work which incorporates in it a sequence of related epiphanies in the form of a coherent narrative, though in this novel he nowhere refers to “epiphany” by name. He only illustrates its use as not only as a significant literary technique, but also as an important philosophical concept, which would later become not only the cornerstone of Joyce’s own mature works, but also of Modernism in general. In Joyce’s practice, the term actually has two meanings – one, that epiphany reveals the truth, the intrinsic essence of a person or something that is observed; and second, that it is a state of mind, a heightened spiritual ecstasy, which he calls “the memorable phase of the mind itself”. The first puts emphasis on the object, whose reality is revealed by an epiphany; the second puts emphasis on the observer, for whom the epiphany can be a state of heightened consciousness. As such, knowledge becomes something subjective and intuitive, not merely a rational process. In fact, as Stanislaus, Joyce’s brother, records, epiphanies can also include dreams, since Joyce, taking his cue from Freud, considered dreams to be a sub-conscious re-shaping of everyday reality. Both meanings can be illustrated in the various episodes of “A Portrait”.
Where the first meaning is concerned, the emphasis being on the object, a good example would be that incident in Chapter II, where Stephen’s romantic picture of cows grazing in a sylvan setting receives a jolt when he visits Stradbrook. The vivid details of the “filthy cowyard”, with its “foul green puddles and clots of liquid dung and steaming brantroughs”1, bring home to him the distinction between his idealistic vision of cows (symbolizing his country Ireland), and the foulness of reality.
An epiphany with its second meaning also occurs in the second chapter, when Mr. Dedalus, Stephen’s father, reveals what is obviously regarded by Stephen as a betrayal of sorts by the rector of Clongowes, Father Conmee. He had wonderful ideas of his own heroism in going to the rector to complain about being wrongfully “pandied” by the prefect of studies, Father Dolan. This larger-than-life opinion about himself is rudely broken when his father comes home and relates the incident of meeting the rector in Dublin, when the rector spoke of the child Stephen in the following terms – “I told them all at dinner about it and Father Dolan and I and all of us had a hearty laugh together over it. Ha! Ha! Ha!”2. Epiphanies like these are not only used to bring out a sudden realization of the truth in the hero, but also in the reader.
Another epiphany is the ecstasy of spirit that Stephen experiences after the retreat, when his soul realizes that it can yet be saved through repentance. An example of “a sudden flash of insight” occurs in the fourth chapter, when Stephen, almost acquiescing to the director’s offer of priesthood, suddenly sees a quartet of young men dancing and singing down the road. The very colourfulness of their clothing, their lilting music, their dancing steps, and their simple enjoyment, brings to Stephen’s mind in a flash of insight, their contrast with the colourlessness, coldness, and emotionlessness of priesthood, and makes him realize in a moment that priesthood is not going to be his vocation, even though he had been attracted to that profession from his childhood.
Often these two meanings coincide in a single moment of intense ecstasy – as in the finest epiphany of the novel in the conclusion to Chapter IV – the picture of the young girl wading in the sea –
“A girl stood before him in midstream, alone and still, gazing out to sea. She seemed like one whom magic had changed into the likeness of a strange and beautiful sea-bird ........ She was alone and still, gazing out to sea; and when she felt his presence and the worship of his eyes her eyes turned to him in quiet sufferance of his gaze, without shame or wantonness”3.
In one moment the girl becomes for him the embodiment of beauty of art, and in a flash of insight Stephen recognizes his artistic vocation. His “enchantment of the heart” is expressed clearly in his wild delight and ecstatic language. The two aspects of the epiphany coalesce to bring the fourth chapter to its rapturous climax.
On the other hand, because of its subjective nature, an epiphany can also be unreliable, as we see in Chapter III, when, after the retreat, Father Arnall’s lectures manage to convince Stephen that his only correct course is to repent and return to the Church. In Chapter IV this acceptance is rejected, and he realizes his folly through an epiphany.
The epiphany also has a deeper, more philosophical significance – the concern with time; and Stephen himself draws attention to this in his diary towards the end of the novel – “The past is consumed in the present, and the present is living only because it brings forth the future”4. Clearly, Stephen’s view is that each moment is the cumulative product of past decisions and actions, and brings about the future by the same process. A prime example of this is the epiphany in the tram, when, while standing with Emma on the tram steps, he remembers his past moments on “the hotel grounds” with Eileen. This moment also anticipates the future, because he will not only remember this moment later, but also because it will subconsciously influence his later life, when Emma will become an archetype of feminine virtue and unattainable sexuality. This is embodied in the present by his inability to kiss her.
In “A Portrait of the Artist” Stephen does not refer to the word “epiphany” directly, but he does define a very similar phenomenon in his aesthetic theory, when he discusses the various stages of apprehending a work of art. After referring to the “wholeness” (integritas) of a work of art, he perceives its “rhythm” (consonantia), and finally realizes its radiance (claritas). The notion of “epiphany” does not necessarily imply any moral or aesthetic content, and reveals only truth, but it has a lot in common with the process of “claritas” – something which Stephen has great difficulty in elucidating. After trying to explain it as “radiance” and “whatness”, he finally uses the phrases “luminous silent stasis” and “enchantment of the heart”5. These connect it with the definition of “epiphany” in “Stephen Hero” as a form of highly rarefied spiritual manifestation.
There has been plenty of criticism expressing doubts about the effectiveness of the epiphany in novel-writing. One of the main reasons for such doubt is that, in order to deepen their impact, the epiphanies generally have an abrupt, even melodramatic ending. Also, these epiphanies may sometimes appear isolated in the plot line, making the novel seem episodic and ununified.
Against these charges, the partial truth of which cannot be denied, we can say that the drawbacks are to a great extent cancelled by their advantages. In “A Portrait of the Artist”, moreover, the presence and consciousness of Stephen is a potent unifying factor. The epiphanies in this novel also become an important vehicle for binding together themes, motifs, and symbols which run throughout the novel.
References :
1) James Joyce : “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” (Penguin Books, 1992, London), p.66.
2) Ibid, p.76.
3) Ibid, p.186.
4) Ibid, p.273.
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Get custom essay5) Ibid, p.231.
The regression of cancer caused by the release of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 could lead to a new class of cancer therapies. The target is to provoke a sarcoidosis response against a malignant process. This approach probably represents one of the most effective therapeutic options because it uses an existing biological system. Vitamin D is the key for starting this system of EPOCA.
Get original essayVitamin D deficiency is associated with increased mortality in Germany. We calculated an associated mortality rate of 18,000 lives lost each year [166]. The EPOCA theory submitted here is one causal explanation for this large number. Without enough vitamin D, the substrate for the blockade of cancer cells is lacking. Therefore, administering vitamin D can be regarded as an effective measure to prevent cancer.
The essential ideas of EPOCA theory were presented at the 4th International Symposium On Vitamin D And Analogs In Cancer Prevention And Therapy in Homburg (Saar) in 2011. Another presentation followed on the Vitamin D Update 2013 congress in Berlin. The EPOCA hypothesis concerns several practice areas of medicine. The first area is pulmonology, whose practitioners treat sarcoidosis patients. We must also consider the oncologists who diagnose and treat cancer. The third area covers the vitamin D researchers who investigate the relationship between vitamin D and cancer defense.
Even in modern science new findings can remain hidden for a long time because they arouse negative emotions. Having researchers leave their traditional working area and invade neighboring areas can be burdensome. Therefore, the interdisciplinary perspective of EPOCA theory involves additional stress for those who deal with it. Everyone is inclined to quickly retreat to his own comfortable territory: it is difficult to publish scientific statements concerning a neighboring area.
A second stress arises, through a problematic change in the patient’s perspective. When the EPOCA theory is presented to sarcoidosis patients, they face the idea of uncontrolled cell proliferation: “Cancer” causes the sarcoidosis symptoms. This new perspective is not trivial. The physician should moderate the psychological stress for the patient with facts. First, the prognosis of sarcoidosis with 97% healing is an excellent response. According to EPOCA theory, this observed reaction is a reliable physiological work. It is a psychological advantage of EPOCA theory that it eliminates the anxiety over a mysterious disease. The result of this talk is a prospect of a cure in the near future. It is most important that this understanding give a new and successful approach to therapy.
So far, the therapeutic success with the preferred cortisone therapy has been inconsistent. The reason for this is attributed to the lack of perception of vitamin D levels. In EPOCA theory, vitamin D is an essential component of healing and shortening the course of sarcoidosis.
Even if the sarcoidosis patient is confronted with the idea of a malignant disease, it is helpful to know that the cause of this disease is clarified and that a manageable solution to the chronic course exists. How could a doctor communicate the confirmed diagnosis of sarcoidosis? We compiled our ideas in the following draft touching all four important aspects.
Imagine that there is a physiological response to a disease!"
Our discussion of EPOCA therapy shows the biochemical relationships between the disciplines. EPOCA theory is a plausible explanation for all the features of sarcoidosis. With a readily available substance such as vitamin d physicians may assist the physiological process. We see the beginning of a new field of oncological research with the task of initiating the EPOCA reaction after cancer diagnosis.
EPOCA theory sees sarcoidosis as a physiological response to cells with unphysiological growth. This are the four items of this hypothesis:
A) Case reports of coincidence of neoplasms in connection to sarcoidosis amount to 14% of all case reports of sarcoidosis and underline the connection. The known mimicry of cancerous structures by sarcoidosis could be due to the successful overlay of existing cancer cells.
B) All known phenomena of sarcoidosis were reviewed and can be explained in the new context: The pathognomonic “lack of caseation” in the histological picture is based on the full absorption of the body’s own material. The pattern of the epidemiologic spread of sarcoidosis corresponds to the distribution of the vitamin D deficiency. In the absence of vitamin D the physiological process of sarcoidosis is weaker, longer and more evident to the eye of the doctor.
C) The biochemical forces of active vitamin D are suitable to inhibit growth. Monocytes releasing active vitamin D can induce apoptosis of malignant cells.
D) There could be a shift in the understanding of an uncategorized medical phenomenon: Sarcoidosis is no longer a pathological but a physiological response. This changes a basic medical paradigm: The patient’s sarcoidosis was a contraindication for application of vitamin D. This paradigm changes to an indication for vitamin D. Vitamin D however should be applied cautiously under control of serum creatinine and serum calcium levels. Furthermore a new class of cancer therapy might arise
There are many lessons that can be learned from the Harrison Bergeron story. The biggest lesson by far is that society can not be held to an equal standard. No matter what you do, life will take its course and everyone will be different in some form or another. As seen in this story everyone was different, but the government tried to make them all equal with “handicaps”.
Get original essayFor instance, in the story, George’s brain functions higher than that of his wife so he had an earpiece that interrupted his thinking every 20 seconds to make it equal. He also had to wear bags full of bird shot to weigh him down and take away his strength. Now as we see in the story his son Harrison was an absolute giant of a man standing nearly seven feet tall. His handicaps were enormous pieces of scrap metal dangling from him like stars in the sky. He also had extremely good vision to account for that the government made a set of spectacles that took his vision to that of a blur. He was seen as a threat to everyone around him, especially by the government.
As seen in the story he thought he was meant to be king and as described in the story he ripped his handicaps off like there were little pieces of paper and smashed the spectacles. He was extraordinarily strong and he said that a king must have a queen so he asked one of the nearby ballerinas to be his queen. As one of the ballerinas stepped forward he stripped her of all her handicaps she was described as very beautiful and strong step. As Harrison was describing to the crowd and the television crews he was now their leader and he was going to free every one of there handicaps and make the world the way it was meant to be. Somewhere around this time, the handicapper general walked into the room she was the person in the government that was in charge of deciding what people need which handicaps and how many they needed. She walked into the room carrying a double-barreled ten-gauge shotgun.
As Harrison turned around and saw her she shot and his enormous body came trembling to the ground she then shot the ballerina dead as well. Next she threatened that the ballerinas and the band members to put the mask and any of their handicaps that they had taken off back on or they'd be the next to hit the ground. Next, she had every source of tv shut down to raise as little questions as possible. As seen in this story having everything equal is not the answer to a perfect society. Nature will always take its course and change things and people will rise against things just like Harrison did. No matter what we try or how much we try things will always be different I will never be the same as anyone else no matter what we try.
Before the Chicano movement, there was constant discrimination against Mexican-Americans. Much like the segregation that African-Americans faced, there were “No Mexicans Allowed” or “Whites only” signs on business windows and public areas. Those who discriminated against Mexican-Americans used the phrase “chicano” as a racial slur, but activists wore it with pride. “Chicano movement” essay stated that this movement was a way Mexican-Americans could ensure their voices were heard and that changes would be made for the better. The Chicano activists demanded better rights for farm workers, restoration of land, and education reform.
Get original essayOne of the leaders for the Chicano Movement was Dolores Huerta. Huerta created the Agriculture Workers Association which helped many issues such as equal rights for farmers who were underpaid for their hard work. Another leader was Ceaser Chavez, he organized the United Farm Workers Union. He had experienced the poor conditions of farm working first hand and was determined to improve the farm workers’ environment. Another program that Chavez was involved in was the Bracero program. The Bracero program started in 1942 and allowed millions of Mexicans who live in Mexico to work in the United States. While the immigrants were able to stay in the United States to work, they were placed in poorly kept housing areas and were discriminated against, which would lead to violence. When people discovered immigrants were working and living in the United states, they were completely against it. Philip Martin stated in his article ‘The Bracero Program: Was it a Failure?’,“The November 1960 CBS documentary ‘Harvest of Shame’ convinced President John F. Kennedy that Braceros were ‘adversely affecting the wages, working conditions, and employment opportunities of our own agricultural workers.’ Farmers fought to preserve the program in Congress, but lost, and the Bracero program ended December 31, 1964.” This caused many workers to lose their jobs. Philip Martin also stated in his article, “Plant scientists developed a uniformly ripening tomato that was processed into ketchup and other tomato products, and engineers developed a machine to cut the plant and shake off the tomatoes, reducing the number of pickers needed by over 90 percent.” This machine was able to replace the work some farmers were doing. Although many lost their jobs, this machine did not put any workers in danger or force them to deal with extreme weather conditions.
The Chicano movement tried to improve the land that was once theirs due to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Sergio Pena wrote in his 2015 Affinity article ‘The 1960s Chicano Movement’, “The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo originally stated that when Mexican lands were to be ceded, Mexican property owners on the lands that were being ceded would be able to maintain their property rights and would become full United States citizens. Many lost their lands because the treaty failed to recognize the original Mexican land grants, and because of Jim Crow laws and the racism of the time many Mexicans that stayed on the ceded land were regarded as second class citizens and treated unequally.” In 1966 Reies Lopez Tijerina demanded to receive what was taken from them by leading a march from Albuquerque, New Mexico to Santa Fe, New Mexico. This march lasted three days, however their demands were turned down and had failed. In September 1965 Larry Itliong led the Filipino-American grape worker strike in order for farmers to receive healthcare, higher pay and retirement benefits. He then asked Cesar Chavez to direct his Mexican-American workers to strike as well and join forces. In 1969, Cesar Chavez said in his Letter from Delano, “We are men and women who have suffered and endured much and not only because of our abject poverty but because we have been kept poor. The color of our skins, the languages of our cultural and native origins, the lack of formal education, the exclusion from the democratic process, the numbers of our slain in recent wars—all these burdens generation after generation have sought to demoralize us, we are not agricultural implements or rented slaves, we are men.” Mexican-Americans were tired of being underpaid and unappreciated for their hard work. They were being discriminated against based on the color of their skin and background. They were not welcome in businesses or public areas, yet they were expected to put up with unfair conditions to be rewarded with low pay and bad education. In 1970, The Delano grape strike succeeded. The growers signed a contract which included a pay raise, health-care benefits, and safety protections from pesticides.
More than ten thousand Chicano high school students walked out of class in order to fight for a better education on March 1st, 1968. Mario Garcia from Catholic Reporter wrote in his 2018 article called, ‘Chicano Movement Walkouts Remind us: We Must Fight For Issues Like Gun Reform’, “The students presented some 50 demands that included bilingual education, a revised curriculum that included Chicano history and Chicano culture, the ending of physical punishment for speaking Spanish on school grounds, more Mexican-American teachers, counselors, and principals, more high schools in the eastside, and, most importantly, a college prep education. ‘We want to go to college!’ the students said and demanded.” For many years Mexican-American students have been stereotyped as not succeeding in school. Schools within mostly Mexican-American populated neighborhoods were labeled as “Mexican Schools.” In these schools the classes were overcrowded, had limited resources, and teachers expected less of the students. Studies show that when a teacher is enthusiastic or tries to bond with their students, the students are more likely to succeed in the class. Since there were a majority of teachers who expected less of the students, and did not make an effort to teach the students the correct curriculum with the necessary requirement, the students did not reach their full potential. At the time, the Mexican-American dropout rate was 60 percent. Today the Mexican-American dropout rate is about 8.6 percent.
The Chicano movement was significant because they wanted to have the same opportunities as everyone else. They wanted to have the opportunity to be successful. As a Chicano high school student once said, ‘We want to go to college!’ The Chicano movement ensured that those who are working hard in hazardous conditions, such as the farm workers, are being paid reasonable wages. Also the movement helped people realize that we should not have low expectations for students based on their backgrounds. By comparing issues from the 1960s to today, one can see there is a higher number of professions filled by those with latin ansetories now than there were in the past.
It’s not much of a mystery that the workplace isn’t much of a fair place. For years now people have been fighting for equality in the workplace, in all its areas. Women fighting for the same wage as men. Ethnic people fighting for the same wage as white people. It’s been an issue for a long time, even back in 2001 when Barbara Ehrenreich published her book Nickel and Dimed which tells her story as she delves from upper middle class to the working poor. Throughout her book, Ehrenreich hits hard issues such as (not so) affordable housing and employee benefits. But Ehrenreich also touches on the very dicey topic of equality in the workplace. Ehrenreich uses her writing skills and her newfound knowledge to make her audience aware of the inequality in the standard workplace based on race and gender biases. She takes her upper middle class audience through three different states, showing them a part of America they may not have noticed. She breaks apart these three states into three different sections to give organization to the piece and also add the juxtaposition between the different places she has experienced. Along the way, she gives details such as her inability to obtain a job due to her race, her friend George telling her about the parameters of his life in America, and the sexism she finds that blocks her from plentiful job opportunities.
Get original essayBarbra starts her journey in Key West, Florida. Right off the bat, this is the first place where she really starts to see a bit of the racism in the workplace. She says, “Best Western, Econo Lodge, and HoJo’s let me fill out application forms, and these are, to my relief, mostly interested in if I am a legal resident of the United States.”(13) Barbra is a middle-aged, white woman. It’s not too hard to pick up on that she is not talking about herself specifically; she is talking about those with Mexican and Puerto Rican descent. She uses this to let us know that those places typically hire ethic people. Then while she is in Maine, she mentions when deciding where to go she chose there because “(she) was struck by what appeared to be an extreme case of demographic albinism.”(51) She then goes on to explain how this is good because it also means that housekeepers and maids and such were white here as well, implying that in other states she would be less likely to find a job in housekeeping because typically companies in other states employ majority if not only ethnic people. It’s little things like those that she says that just point out the racial biases in the workplace as seen first hand by Barbara and hundreds of thousands of other Americans.
But Ehrenreich hit a different point about being an immigrant in America that people in America might not know about. When she was working as a waitress in Florida, she worked with a Czech boy named George. George is a dishwasher at the second restaurant Barbara worked at, Jerry’s. On page 38, Ehrenreich tells her readers about how George explained to her about how he doesn’t actually get paid by the company but the money he makes goes to the agent that sent him over here, and out of the money he makes, the agent only gives him 5 dollars an hour. I think that this is something many Americans aren’t aware of. Ehrenreich could have left it out, but she made it a point in her book to educate people who knew nothing about it, such as myself. She points out a whole other dimension in the inequality in the workplace. She is really forcing her audience to look at a point of view most of them really don’t have to deal with.
But how can anyone talk about inequality in the workplace without so much as mentioning the topic of sexism, and so Ehrenreich did. She shows her readers several subtle hints of sexism throughout the book, “We all admire her for standing up to Billy and telling him, after some of his usual nastiness about the female server class” (page 21) which shows the sexism isn’t just on a corporate level but also on a management level. However Ehrenreich really uses Minnesota to hit at the topic. She very carefully weaves the statements into the text so if her readers aren’t on their toes, they might not notice at all. When she’s talking about the simple task of hanging up clothes she mentions, “My first response to the work is disappointment and a kind of sexist contempt”(156) then goes on to talk about how she thinks she could be better used doing something in plumbing but how that’s a man’s job and all she’s expected to do is return a pink shirt to it’s rack. She follows that with the simple but powerful statement: “I feel oppressed, too, by the mandatory gentility of Wal-Mart culture. This is ladies’ and we are all ladies’ here.”(156). And at this point Ehrenreich could have made a big investment in the subject and talked for paragraphs or pages about it, however she uses this as a way to move along her piece and she quickly moves away from the topic. Ehrenreich is smart in doing so as to not bore or lose some of her audience. She wants to keep the feminist undertones under wraps so she can squeeze them into different places for more of a wow factor. So her readers don’t go, “oh it’s just Barbra being feminist again.” Rather they think about why she decided to include this piece of information. It makes those types of claims seem more essential to her book and her story than little side notes that she included just because she feels like being feministic.
Nickel and Dimed really does a great job of lightly pointing out the equality flaws in the average American workplace. Ehrenreich does a fantastic job of showing the sexism in the workplace without giving her readers the feeling that she might have an ulterior motive. She also gives them a great view on noticing the racism in her experiences. Though the goal of the book is clearly to explain to her audience how someone clearly can not live comfortably, or maybe even at all, on minimum wage, Nickel and Dimed had clear undertones of other extremely serious topics including and especially inequality in the workplace
Questions of personal responsibility, free will, and justice move our sympathies through a work of literature, causing readers to relate with or despise characters as they are shaped within a piece. In The Tragedy of King Lear, William Shakespeare draws our support for his villains as well as his heroes, asking us to explore what drives someone to action. We are invited to determine culpability for characters' deeds and to decide how fitting are their punishments.
Get original essayShakespeare tests our sensibilities in letting us meet his villains intimately through their soliloquies. In Act One, Scene Two, we meet Edmund who is plotting against his half-brother, Edgar, in order to win the whole of their elderly father's fortune. Edmund attempts to persuade us that he is only doing what he must, on his own volition, because it is his rightful obligation. However, though Shakespeare raises the issue of whether past circumstances can mitigate fault, he falls short of casting a viable doubt on Edmund's guilt. In this way, King Lear suggests that people are given what they deserve, that there is justice in the end result and the way things turn out are always fitting.
Edmund thinks about his own accountability immediately following the execution of his plan against Edgar. He presents his father with a letter, seemingly from his brother, in which Edmund has detailed Edgar's supposed greed and impatience in acquiring Gloucester's inheritance. After Gloucester reads the letter, Edmund appeases him with promises to seek out Edgar and confront him about his intentions. Gloucester exits and we are brought into the head of this illegitimate son who is determined to secure his financial position.
To this end, Edmund coldly admits that he is aware of what he is doing. "This is the excellent foppery of the world," Edmund says. "That when we are sick in fortune...we make guilty of our disasters the sun, the moon and the stars; as if we were villains by necessity" (I.ii.99-102). Edmund makes a distinction between one who will not accept responsibility for his actions and himself who will not blame "heavenly compulsion" (I.ii.102) for what he is doing.
This admission makes Edmund's tricks appear more sinister; he believes that he is in control of his actions and he is scheming against his brother freely. However, we also grudgingly give him our respect; he is not childishly trying to hide his guilt.
The words that Edmund uses, "an admirable evasion of whore-master man, to lay his goatish disposition to the charge of a star" (I.ii.105-6), recalls the words of his father just minutes earlier. Referring to Cordelia's brazenness, Kent's banishment, and his own son's apparent disloyalty, Gloucester blames "these late eclipses of the sun and moon" (I.ii.88). Gloucester's superstitions make him appear foolish next to Edmund's calm, unaffected rationality. These are not just subtle differences in character between father and son, however, but also clues to Edmund's irreverence toward Gloucester. Edmund is probably making reference to his father when he describes the behavior of "drunkards, liars, and adulterers, by enforced obedience of planetary influence" (I.ii.103-4). Edmund does not feel that Gloucester has taken responsibility for his affair with his mother and is still resentful of this fact.
The circumstances of Edmund's birth show up as an increasingly clear source of the resentment that Edmund is harboring. "My father compounded with my mother under the dragon's tail, and my nativity was under Ursa Major, so it follows, I am rough and lecherous," Edmund says. "Fut! I should have been that I am, had the maidenliest star in the firmament twinkled on my bastardizing" (I.ii.106-110). Edmund is implying that his "bastardizing," not his "birth" or his "nature," is the reason why he is the way he is; Edmund may not blame the stars in the cosmos for his greed but he does blame his father. In ending with the word "bastardizing," he is shifting emphasis onto that event as a significant reason why he is "rough and lecherous;" the circumstances of his birth left him no choice but to look out for himself.
Edmund's words are self-critical and they invoke, at this early portion of the play, a sort of vague pathos. We still remember the first scene of Gloucester introducing his illegitimate son to the Earl of Kent. "Though this knave came something saucily into the world before he was sent for, yet his mother was fair; there was good sport at his making, and whoreson must be acknowledged," Gloucester said (I.i.16-19). Edmund seems as if he is much younger than he is, answering respectfully to his father's mockery of his mother and resignation at having been "brazed" (I.i.9) to concede his mistake with a mistress.
The genre of King Lear is unquestionably tragedy: tragic because of the absence of love within these five acts. The subplot of Gloucester, Edmund, and Edgar especially highlights this lack of love within a family. From the beginning, Gloucester makes light of his affair with Edmund's mother and his filial obligations of raising her son. It is no wonder that Edmund, in describing his conception, says, "My father compounded [sic] with my mother" (I.ii.106) in an almost technical way, the way one might mix chemicals.
Edmund's own views on love and sexual relations are also skewed as we move toward the end of the play. When confronted with two sisters who are both interested in relationships with him, Edmund thinks logically and strategically about which one he should choose. "To both sisters have I sworn my love," Edmund says. "Each jealous of the other, as the stung / are of the adder" (V.i.55-7). He is even callous when the deaths of the two sisters are announced; he says, "Yet Edmund was beloved / The one the other poisoned for my sake / And after slew herself" (V.ii.239-41). He expresses no love for Regan or Goneril, only a faint, grim pride.
Edmund's rhetoric may draw initial support from readers, but, in the end, what happens to Gloucester does not allow any sympathy for the deliverer of his fate, however hard Edmund may try to convince us otherwise. We can almost imagine ourselves to be compassionate toward Edmund when he is talking about his "bastardizing" at the onset of the play. Later, his love triangle with King Lear's daughters, Regan and Goneril, touches upon the sisters' own absence of love for their father. We surely are not rooting for the girls who have tried to strip their father of his titles, his honor, and even his home when first one then the other casts him out. Although, at this point, we may be little inclined to empathize with Edmund, we are less inclined to do so with Lear's daughters.
As it follows, Gloucester is never portrayed as a benevolent father. He is first presented as adulterous and then unrepentant when he is so quick to blame the "wisdom of nature" (I.ii.89) and astrological disturbances for every upset. The best portrayal of him, by the end of the play, is of an enfeebled old man who has suffered much at the hands of the illegitimate son for whom he has not shown any love.
Lear, however, is a sorrier figure. After the elderly king (who has just divided up his kingdom) is evicted from Goneril's house, he is taken in by Regan, who is so resentful of this arrangement that she locks him outside in the rain. "Is it not as this mouth should tear this hand / For lifting food to 't?" he cries. "O Regan, Goneril / Your kind father whose frank hear gave all-" (III.iv.16-17, 20-21) This father is closer to one who might bring unexpected presents to his daughters and spoil them with clothes and jewels in an outward showing of affection.
In describing his bastardizing, Edmund draws our attention. He does it unemotionally and laconically, throwing around cold words of contempt for people who won't stand up for their own actions, for his father, even for the reader who is caught up in reminders of the first scene where we witness this father-son dynamic. He shows us his human side.
Thus we are left here to question justice. Shakespeare leaves his readers to wonder whether it is Gloucester's own fault, as the irresponsible father, that Edmund has turned against him. Similarly, we wonder at whether Edmund's past is a mitigating factor in our judgment of him. For justice to be served, however, Gloucester's punishment would have to fit whatever crime we perceive he has committed.
The blinding of Gloucester is a pivotal moment of the play. Edmund leaves before Cornwall performs the deed, but he is not ignorant to what is coming. Edmund does not speak before Gloucester is brought in, but the last thing he says, scenes earlier, is an expression of his agreement for bringing the king before Cornwall, as Cornwall says, "that he may be ready for...apprehension" (III.v.15). He does not speak even when Regan and Goneril offer their suggestions on what should be inflicted on Gloucester.
"Hang him instantly," Regan says. Says Goneril, "Pluck out his eyes" (III.vii.4-5).
The next time we meet up with Edmund, he is exchanging seemingly loving words with Goneril. That is, he is seducing the woman he knows to be responsible for the blinding of his father.
Gloucester's punishment, however, may also be viewed as an enlightenment for the old man who is reunited with his son, Edgar, and realizes just how "blind" he has been to Edmund's evil ways. Edmund's retribution for his role in the blinding would have to be as gruesome as that which was suffered by his father; it's not. Although Edmund's punishment is death, he dies proudly, smugly; he does not die before he can be the bearer of bad news to Albany that he and Albany's wife have ordered that Cordelia be hanged "in the prison, and / to lay the blame upon her own despair / That she did forbid herself" (V.iii.253-5).
The sense we make out of the issue of justice in this subplot is commutable to how we perceive what befell King Lear and his daughters. The punishment of the sisters is to kill each other out of greed; they fight their whole lives over clothes, property, and lovers until finally Goneril poisons her sister. It is partly Lear's fault, spoiling them but first making them pawns in a game of words where the ability to verbalize one's love is more important than one's true feelings.
The sentence which was handed to the elderly king was not only the deaths of his two eldest daughters but also to be separated from his youngest (and favorite) daughter, Cordelia, after banishing her for not participating in a game of rhetoric with her sisters. When Lear is finally united with her, he and Cordelia are detained in a prison and she is hanged. Lear is also the victim of Regan and Goneril's heartless schemes to usurp his former power: blatantly through their inheritance and more subtly by trying to separate Lear from his one hundred knights, who symbolized honor to the old man. Yet this is fitting for the father who played his daughters against each other.
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Get custom essayCordelia and Edmund die together in the play. Edmund dies with a raucous and Cordelia, softly. Cordelia is not given any last words, she who never believed that words could truly express emotions. She dies with her father expectantly looking to her for answers and yet she cannot and does not say anything to comfort him. This contrast between the two gives credence to the idea of a just ending. Edmund dies spouting rhetoric which was the way he maneuvered his whole life through his schemes. Both our first and last impressions of Cordelia are of a young martyr who renounced the politics of kingship. King Lear may be disturbing in its themes but its end is fitting. At its closure, there is a sort of satisfaction at the finale and we are confident that everyone has died the way he or she would have wanted to live in his or her life.
Ergogenic in the term is “work to produce”. The reason why athletes take the ergogenic aids is that they fear of losing. It is not surprising that athletes want to try the newest ergogenic aid since sporting competitions are sometimes won by a difference of 1/100th.
Get original essayThis supplement sometimes added to the diet to make up for an additional nutritional however, some athletes consume dietary supplements to improve the health and performance. Athletes at the ancient days would eat the heart or liver of an animal, such as lion or deer, to increase their swiftness, courage or strength but on the nowadays, the uses of the ergogenic aid are not surprising. In order to improve our performance and hasten recovery, athletes and coaches use various way to improved performance which known as Ergogenic Aids. Ergogenic Aids may influence the physiological capacity of our body but may also affect our performance. There are few categories of the ergogenic aids that is:
To enhance their performance during high-intensity activity. It gives you a mental or physical edge while exercising or competing. And also to improve or maintain their top performance during the competition to increase the chance of seizing the victory.
The substances of ergogenic aids that not been banned.
There are several ergogenic aids that are safe to use include the following:
The protein is used to build the muscle or strength you want but if you don’t consume enough protein, you won't be able to build the muscle. Although plenty of the expensive brands of protein are available the plain whey protein is the best than others.
Fish oil is not just to help the athlete to deal with injuries, swelling, and inflammation, it also lubricates your joints so they can get less wear and tear to our muscles. This is because of the athlete in the training or in the middle of the season that always get injuries.
To the athletes that lack of vegetable and the vitamins and minerals daily they can take the green supplement to recover their nutrition in their body. It also can shorten the time to the athlete for recovery their muscles and tissues. It also can avoid the athlete from injuries such as cramping.
BCAAs is used to boost the immune system. BCAAs can provide energy to do endurance activities because itself accelerate the protein to break down into amino acids the body can use. It has been shown to delayed fatigue as a result.
Vitamin D helps the body to absorb the calcium for your bones to be strong. It also helps the immune system to works optimally. Vitamin D helps you to stay longer when you play outdoor games but if you play indoor games, you should take Vitamin D during the off-season.
The body is made up from the 70 percent water and your muscle is held most of that. The drinking of the water may be the simplest thing athletes can do to stay healthy and prevent the body from dehydrates. Example, when the football plays the games, they need water to restore the energy that athletes lose. The water that athletes drink consists the oxygen that will help the athletes to perform better.
Advantages of medication for ergogenic aids
It is now recognized that adequate dietary carbohydrate in the days and hours before strenuous training and competition is critical to maintaining adequate glycogen levels in the muscles. Increasing consumption of carbohydrates in liquid or food form normally three days prior to an endurance-type event is, therefore, a way to enhance performance. Endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, rely on their stores of glycogen as a source of energy during competition and carbohydrate loading is a method for boosting the amount of glycogen in the body before a competition.
Proper nutrition means selecting good food choices and diets that lead to maintaining health while also reducing major risk factors for diseases. The estimated average daily calorie requirement is 1940 calories per day for women and 2550 for men. If the level of activity is increased, high performance can be achieved by increasing the calorie intake according to a sound nutrition basis.
The body requires a certain amount of fluid intake on a daily basis to function and the minimum is about equal to four 8-ounce glasses (one liter or one quart). Strenuous activity and excessive sweating call for two to three times this basic amount. It has been shown that a fluid loss equivalent to 2% of body weight can impair performance and lead to heat exhaustion at 5%. Electrolyte solutions not only provide fluid but also contain electrolytes, the salts, and minerals required for various functions by the body and that are also lost by sweating.
The increased stress of competitive sports can affect athletes both physically and mentally such that their performance abilities are lowered. Stress may lead to excessive tension, increased heart rates, cold sweats, and anxiety about the outcome of the competition. Stress management techniques are recognized ergogenic aids that help maintain concentration, confidence, control, and commitment. Relaxation techniques: Relaxation is especially important for high-performance athletic activities. It promotes rest, recovery and recuperation while removing stress-related reactions, such as increased muscular tension. In addition, relaxation contributes to the maintenance of positive physical and mental states.
But, there are some ergogenic aids has been banned by the government because of many issues and health problem may affect the athlete performance in the long term. The question is why some ergogenic aids banned? Based on professional research, some substance is illegal to use is because it may.
An experiment has been carried out by the scientist about an effective supplement that is ergogenic aids. This experiment has been carried out among professional athletes. This research is using 600 athletes that are 216 women and 384 men that are asked to practice various sports disciplines. The athletes have been divided into two classified that is a younger group and older group. The younger group consisted 307 people that is 18 to 23 years old and the rest of it is the older one that is 24 to 35 years old. In this research they using a questionnaire that was used with a question concerning the frequency and types of consumed supplements.
Then the result has been carried out that nearly half of the athletes that is 48.2% said they are taking supplementation, 36.7% consumed the supplement occasionally and 11.5% still taking the supplement. The most people in the group that is 75.4% are admitted to take isotonic drinks that were the most commonly chosen nutritional aid enhancing physical performance. The least is frequently used a supplement that was creatine. This research also showed that men are the most are taking the ergogenic aids than the women that are men is 50.5% and the women are 44.1% that take the ergogenic aids.
So as the conclusion from this experiment, competitors who use supplements over those who choose not to, seems to reflect the continued lack of the athletes' sufficient awareness of the effectiveness, safety, and health benefits of dietary supplementation that enhances physical performance.
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and Olympics commission has banned the several substances such as anabolic and other steroids, Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), Diuretics, Blood doping, Ephedrine, human growth hormone (HGH) and take away supplement. It is because they didn’t bring a lot of benefit to our body and performance but bring more harmful to an athlete. Many drugs, supplements, and practices can give athletes unfair advantages and also the more damage than the stripping an athlete of a title. Anabolic and other steroids that affect the person can cause a long-term health problem or even the death. In the end, it better to training, dedication, hydrating fluids and the proper diet than taking the ergogenic aids to boost your performance.
Anabolic and other steroids that affect the person can cause a long-term health problem or even the death. In the end, it better to training, dedication, hydrating fluids and the proper diet than taking the ergogenic aids to boost your performance.
Illegal according to the law and in the sporting events. The effect to the athletes is numerous and potentially fatal. Examples of the substances are androstenedione, stanozolol, axiron, and fortesta. Most related to unwanted androgenic effects, such as shrinking testicles, enlarged prostate gland, and lower sperm levels. Some of the adverse effects are potentially serious and irreversible and they include heart, liver, and immune system problems. Behavior changes may include aggression, paranoia, mood swings, low sex drive, and depression.
Harmful effects have been reported for several ergogenic products. Additional risky supplements in the ephedrine class include androstenedione and other “prohormone” precursors to testosterone, yohimbine, and products that contain kava. Adverse effects have also been reported with carbohydrate supplementation. Increased insulin levels after carbohydrate consumption were shown to significantly decrease blood glucose levels in some athletes, and fructose-containing solutions have been associated with adverse gastrointestinal effects in some studies.
The most dangerous and harmful steroid in humans by using synthetic versions to increase steroid production. This supplement will physiologic in testosterone synthesis. The testosterone level will increase in women but do not change in men. They would likely cause the many adverse effects associated with anabolic steroids.
The medications that make a person urinate more frequently. They use this substance that will help dilute performance-enhancing drugs. This also can cause a variety of harmful side effects such as cramping, dizziness, blood pressure drops, and electrolyte imbalances.
Blood doping is the process of boosting red blood cells to help carry more oxygen to the muscles and lungs. It can be done through a blood transfusion or by taking drugs like erythropoietin. Blood doping has been linked to strokes, allergic reactions, and infections.
Athletes use this medication to make more red blood cells in their bodies. This can increase the ability to use oxygen because these cells can carry the oxygen.
Medication doctors prescribe for people who don’t make a lot of red blood cells. Athletes use medicine to make more red blood cells in their bodies. This can increase a person’s ability to use oxygen because these cells carry oxygen. Endurance athletes may especially try to use erythropoietin because they believe they can perform longer with more oxygen. However, using the medication when not medically needed can cause blood clots and death.
Blood doping is the process that cost Lance Armstrong his Tour de France titles.
Ephedrine is a central nervous stimulant. Ephedrine produces similar effects to adrenaline, but it too can be dangerous. It can cause serious cardiovascular effects, including stroke, and a whole host of other problems. Both athletic organizations and the FDA have banned it.
It will increase our performance. Creatine always is used by the athlete to improve their performance and can increase the high intensity of their training. Creatine also made our body gain lean muscle mass. It also can increase our strength 5 to 15 percent of body strength but creatine also has the bad effect such as cramping and dehydration. It also completely unknown for the long-term effect on our body.
This aid is usually used by the body builder. Some bodybuilder takes large doses to decrease the fat and increases the muscle mass. Many side effects have been detected by using this doses such as enlarged organs and chronic disease. Effects include heart and nerve diseases, glucose intolerance, and higher levels of blood fats Other effects also come from the extra HGH levels in the body along with what is already produced by the pituitary glands.
Even the caffeine can increases mental alertness and lowers the fatigue, it may cause irritability, restlessness, diarrhea, insomnia, and anxiety if used excessively. It usually found in the coffee, tea chocolate, and soft drinks. Ergogenic doses of caffeine may cause restlessness, nervousness, insomnia, and tremors. At least 17 deaths have been linked to products that combine caffeine and ephedrine.
Some athletes use this supplements to improve their performance, have more energy or decrease their body fat but an athlete that use ephedrine may find that it helps them farther and faster but some research that it will have side effects. This is why the National Football League, the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the International Olympic Committee have all taken steps to keep it off the playing fields.
It's also a central nervous stimulant. Ephedrine produces similar effects to adrenaline, but it too can be dangerous. It can cause serious cardiovascular effects, including stroke, and a whole host of other problems. Both athletic organizations and the FDA have banned it.
Chris Froome is an international athlete in cyclist that hold four times Tour de France champion are failed a drug test that been doing by World Anti-doping Agencies(WADA). Chris Froome has asthma and he recommended to take the asthma drug for his cure to his disease and take according to the volume that allowed. But in this case, Chris Froome are failed in drug test because he was found that he has a double the allowed level of the legal asthma drug that is Salbutamol in his urine on a test that taken on 7 September 2017 by World Anti-doping Agencies(WADA) during the Vuelta an Espana, which the 32 years old went on to win. Salbutamol is a medication that opens up the medium and large airways in the lungs. It is used to treat asthma including asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
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Get custom essayErgogenic aids are a substance that benefits many athletes. It can also improve athlete performance. Ergogenic aids can enhance the athlete's spirit for training because ergogenic aids have a positive effect in the shortest time. This will give the athlete confidence to practice continuously. Ergogenic aids are divided into several parts, including nutrition, physiology, psychology and so on. Many athletes use ergogenic aids to make recovery because they have used a lot of muscles during training. Ergogenic aids should be taken according to body requirements in order to help improve athlete performance. If taking excessively it can be harmful to the body. Athletes who take ergogenic aids should seek advice from experts so as not to impair the athlete's health. If not follow the instructions from the expert it will cause the current performance of the competition to decline. In addition to providing athlete's goodness to improve performance, ergogenic aids also harm the athlete. Examples of ergogenic aids forbidden to take athlete are anabolic steroids. Ergogenic aids should be taken in a healthy way so that our performance improves and can provide health to the body.
Eric Whitacre was born on the date January 2, 1970 in the town of Reno, Nevada. Whitacre grew up in his home-town Reno and began his musical career with his junior high marching band led by a man named Jim Burnett. He later changed to playing synthesizer in techno-pop band and dreamt of becoming a rock star. Whitacre began his full musical training as an undergraduate at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, although he was unable to read music at the time, and eventually became a Bachelor of Music in Musical Composition. The first piece of word that he ever sang was called "Requiem" by Mozart, and he claims that the piece changed his entire life.
Get original essayHe then proceeded to study composition with Virko Baley, a Ukrainian composer, and studied choral conducting with David Weiller. Due to the help of these two, Whitacre finished his Bachelor of Music in 1995. Whitacre credits his inspiration that led him down the trail of music towards Weiller. Whitacre even presented his first piece that he wrote for his college class "Go, Lovely Rose" to Weiller because of his inspiration. He proceeded to receive his Master’s degree in Musical Composition at the Juilliard School.
Also while at the Juilliard School, Eric met his future wife Hila Plitmann. Whitacre created his first Wind Ensemble piece, "Ghost Train" at the age of 23. Now, over 40 times, this piece has been recorded. After the extreme success of Ghost Train, Whitacre moved to Los Angeles to become a professional composer at the age of 25.Eric Whitacre has now produced around 80 pieces in his lifetime, and become a very successful composer.
In 2007 he was nominated for a Grammy in the category of Best Choral Performance with hsi album "Cloudburst and Other Works." Then, in 2012 he received a Grammy award for Best Choral Performance thanks to the album called "Light and Gold." Whitacre has clearly been a very successful composer. His most popular song is called "Enjoy the Silence" which is written for SATB.The first piece that I’m choosing to write about is Eric’s first song "Go, Lovely Rose." "Go, Lovely Rose" is written for SATB and came out in 1991. It appears as though the only instrumentation that goes along with the piece is a piano.
I chose this piece because it was his first ever composition and I kind of figured that it probably meant a lot to him due to the fact that it was in fact his first piece he created. The piece makes me think about a man who has finally given up on trying for a woman who was just wasting his time the whole time he was with her (because it says wastes her time and me in the first two lines). The tone of the song seems to be slow moving and sort of sad. The piece is written in English and was written for his college choir.
The second piece I’m writing about is called "Ghost Train." I’m choosing this piece because it was the composition that really got his career going, and helped him choose his path. He said he listened to his college wind ensemble play a song and said that he could present the man (his name was Thomas Leslie) with a song of his own for the group to perform.
Leslie gave him permission to do so, and if it was good enough to his liking, the group would play it at their next performance. Whitacre worked on the song all through his Christmas break and gave it to Leslie to test out. Leslie said he loved the song and the group performed it. Whitacre is quoted saying "He played it beautifully at the convention, and BOOM… the thing took off like a shot. Band directors began calling me at home, trying to buy it from me, and my formal career as ‘composer’ had begun." Whitacre also later wrote a second and third part of these songs to make a triptych.
The song is dedicated to Thomas Leslie because he was the one who Whitacre gives credit to for helping it take off. The piece seems to be temp changing, and is very eerie sounding. This is my favorite song that he wrote because it sounds very much like a train, and definitely a ghost train for that sort. I love this piece because it is for band and the bands seem to make it sound so much like a train and it is just simply amazing.
The third piece I am writing about is "Enjoy the Silence." I have chosen this piece because it is supposedly one of his more popular pieces. I am not as much of a fan of this one because it sounds so slow and boring. It is written for SATB and is in English. He wrote the song in a choral version that was already written by someone else. I really enjoyed researching Eric Whitacre and I learned a lot about him that was actually pretty interesting. I really like his "Ghost Train" song , but the other two I wasn’t quite as fond of. Overall though, I think he is a pretty good composer. I honestly think I might go and listen to some of his other songs and see what I missed out on.