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Isabella is the strongest female character in "Measure for Measure." She debates with Angelo on an equal level and is not undermined by his authority. Her strength as a character derives from several sources; her chastity being one of the most significant. Isabella's chastity provides her with a tool which most of the other females in this play lack, since they have all been sexually dominated by men. Her status as a nun also helps Isabella convince others of the accuracy of her convictions since she can appropriate the Christian doctrine as her own. Despite these two powers, it is her ability to manipulate two sets of laws, human and divine, and apply these to her advantage which truly allow her to continue to participate in situations typically attributed to males. Finally, Isabella manages to achieve her goal without compromising her values, but eventually bows down under male authority, in her implicit acceptance of the Duke's marriage proposal. Regardless of the male dominated conclusion, Isabella's powers of chastity, speech and interpretation of law allow her the opportunity to advance as far in the plot as to free her brother and debate with male authority, two events in which a woman's participation were inconceivable in this time period.

One of Isabella's most unique characteristics is her chastity. She has renounced a sexual life in order to become a nun of the religious order of St. Clare. This decision elevates Isabella's status in society due to the importance placed on chastity as a symbol of purity and legitimacy of birth at that time. "In a patriarchal society, men are privileged with authority, yet, somewhat paradoxically, that authority depends upon the chastity of women" (Baines, 286). When an unmarried woman is chaste she is guaranteeing the legitimacy of her children, thus ensuring the patriarchy of the family. Purity in blood relations was an important issue in Shakespeare's time, and therefore it was the female's responsibility to be chaste in order to preserve the family's honor as well as her own. The Duke exemplifies this mentality when confessing Juliet, and declaring her sexual proclivity "a sin of heavier kind" (37, 29) than that of Claudio, who was equally responsible for her pregnancy. The excessive sexual license in Vienna leads the Duke to enforce chastity through a law which values chastity above a human's life. The new valorization of chastity in Vienna increases the respect Isabella's chaste status receives in the Viennese society; this is made evident in Lucio's praise of her as a "thing enskied and sainted, by your renouncement an immortal spirit.." (17, 34)

Isabella's position as a nun also allows her to challenge Angelo using Christian doctrine in defense of her brother's life. The doctrine is one of the few elements of authority which even Angelo must obey, since God's laws apply to everyone, including those of the highest authority on earth. Upon Isabella's first encounter with Angelo she condemns the ease with which Angelo judges others and tries to dissuade his stern judgment of Claudio by asking "How would you be, if he, which is the top of judgment, should but judge you as you are?" (33, 76) Here Isabella is trying to make Angelo identify with Claudio by implying that even Angelo himself is not free of sin. This vision of all humans as sinners and therefore not apt to pass judgment comes directly from the Christian proverb "let he who has not sinned, cast the first stone". Angelo cannot refute Isabella's imposition of religious doctrine and defends himself by citing the earthly laws as responsible for the condemnation of her brother. Isabella skews Christian law and interprets it to her advantage. Though her brother has committed the sin of premarital sex, she tries to convince Angelo that exculpating him "is no sin at all, but charity" (42, 63). After Angelo proposes the idea of a "compelled sin" in order to save Claudio's life, Isabella changes her perspective on Claudio's death and tries to uses religious justification to excuse her from renouncing her chastity. "Is't not a kind of incest to take life from thine own sister's shame?" (53, 138) Here Isabella uses the definition of all Christians as siblings in order to transform Angelo's proposal into a societal sin, that of incest. This could also be interpreted on a more personal level, since Claudio is taking advantage of Isabella's sex to lure Angelo into pardoning him. In both cases, the use of incest, a sin in Christian doctrine, is being highlighted. Isabella's role as an exemplary model of Christian worship gives her the opportunity to use Christian doctrine as laws which empower and validate her actions and opinions.

Isabella, though desiring to be a part of the religious world, continues to value the norms imposed by the Viennese society. She uses these standards as arguments in defense of her brother, referring to the power of authority since "that in the captain's but a choleric word, which in the soldier is flat blasphemy" (35, 130). Isabella focuses on the ability of authority to corrupt the laws of society to their advantage, a common practice during that time, yet a taboo subject to discuss. Her separation from that world because of the convent allows her to breach such subjects without fear of repercussion, since she is not looking to marry and become a part of Viennese society. She knows how authority hides behind the laws and therefore questions Angelo on the legal possibilities of releasing her brother, "but might you do't and do the world no wrong..." (32, 53) The issue of bastardy, key to Viennese society, is also important to Isabella. "I had rather my brother die by the law than my son should be unlawfully born" (55, 187). Though Isabella seems willing to disregard society's judgment, which would condemn Claudio to death, the dishonor of birthing an illegitimate child supersedes her affections for her brother. This shows Isabella's true regard for upholding certain standards of Viennese society; she wants to be held in an exemplary position by this society and is not willing to sacrifice this status for her brother.

Isabella uses both divine and human law to justify herself, usually invalidating one set of laws to further validate the other. Her decision to "live chaste, and, brother, die: more than our brother is our chastity," (47, 183) constitutes an example of her use of religion to validate her chastity, while invalidating the moral law which would encourage her to sacrifice her chastity for Claudio's life. Nuns participate in a "marriage" with Christ; by giving herself to Angelo, Isabella would abandon the opportunity to join the sisterhood. She would thus pollute her soul, which should be the purest element of her being. Isabella thinks "better it were a brother died at once, than that a sister, by redeeming him, should die forever" (44, 106). Isabella has decided to elevate the worth of her soul above that of Claudio's body. This stance could be considered hypocritical. If purity of soul were above that of the body, by giving herself to Angelo Isabella would be saving her brother's body and would not have to put her soul at risk. This act would be a sacrifice of her body, similar to Jesus' corporeal sacrifice, forced upon her by others, thus lacking the participation of her soul. Despite Isabella's repeated allusions to the death of her soul, it is her fear of dishonor and rejection by both the divine and Viennese society which truly motivates her to reject Angelo's offer. Isabella also rejects one set of laws in order to further her purpose when Mariana begs her to forgive Angelo, in order to prevent his death. Isabella persuades the Duke to exonerate Angelo by claiming that "thoughts are no subjects, intents but merely thoughts" (106, 451). Since Angelo did not succeed in his attempt at illicit sex Isabella believes that he should not be charged. This reasoning, though permissible in human law, where charges are lessened if the actual deed does not take place, is unacceptable by Christian standards. In the book of Matthew Jesus tells his worshippers that whoever looks at a woman to lust for her has already committed adultery with her in his heart. Therefore, Christianity condemns the thought as strongly as the action, yet Isabella chooses to ignore this and convince the Duke using society's laws regarding guilt. Isabella needs the support of a given set of laws to persuade the male characters of the accuracy of her statements, yet she is willing to use divine and human law interchangeably to achieve the desired result, keeping both her chastity and honor intact.

Despite the allure of chastity as a rare value in the Viennese society, Isabella does not understand or recognize men's attraction towards her. She has chosen to devote her life to God, and it is this "marriage" which she considers holy, not the union between man and woman encouraged by society. One could consider her apprehensive towards men, desiring a "more strict restraint upon the sisterhood," (16, 4) and telling Lucio that "my power, alas, I doubt," (19, 77) when regarding her ability to convince Angelo to release her brother. This could be a factor in Isabella's decision to join a nunnery; the isolation from men would prevent her from suffering the dishonor so prevalent among the majority of the female characters in this play, who are subjugated by men. By the end of the play, Isabella begins to grasp the power she holds over men, and defends Angelo by claiming that "a due sincerity governed his deeds till he did look on me" (105, 444). She now recognizes the power of her beauty and chaste nature in influencing men's actions.

Isabella's newfound understanding does not indicate her acquiescence with the societal union the Duke offers her, "what's mine is yours and what is yours is mine" (109, 535). The uncharacteristic silence which ensues after the Duke's proposal for her hand in marriage marks Isabella's dissatisfaction with the idea of marrying him. The Duke is responsible for saving her brother's life, which makes Isabella indebted to him. Her initial duty, that of preserving her chastity and devoting her life to God, will now be neglected as Isabella is subjugated by the Duke's authority. This moment marks one of the most significant changes in Isabella's personality. The impending loss of her chastity, a characteristic which increased her power and value, destroys Isabella. She must now succumb to the authority of a male, the very idea she has been fighting against throughout the course of the play. Marriage represents both a loss of chastity and value to Isabella, who must reject her religious ideals and thus lower her status from a pure worshipper of God to a common female bowing down under the authority of a male.

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Isabella's speech, peppered with religious doctrine and societal morals, persuades most of the male characters in the play. Unfortunately, her beauty and sexuality work against her, tempting Angelo to propose illicit sex as payment for her brother's freedom. The implication of Isabella's transformation from a nun, renouncing sexual activity, to a whore, giving herself over in exchange for her brother's life, is impossible for her to accept, and she chooses to let Claudio die. Isabella's chastity, at the beginning a persuasive tool, turns into a distinguishing part of her identity which must be guarded at all costs, even if this cost is Claudio's life. Isabella's power is such that she is able to save her brother and keep her chastity, through her cunning and speech. Yet, in a tragic turn, Isabella unwillingly succumbs to male authority and her powers vanish; she is now a common female whose opportunities have been thwarted by societal norms.

Ishiro Honda was born May 07,1911 in Yamagata, Japan. He is best known for directing the Godzilla films, and has won several awards. To some his name may seem a tad strange, but it actually means the fourth boy in the family, which is significant to Japanese culture. Ishiro was surely a man with a vision, he loved sci-fi and science and incorporated much of this into his film making. From an early age, his family knew that he would go on to do great things. Ishiro was a man of action, he accomplished everything he put his mind to.

Unfortunately, in 1993, this creative director passed away. He was nearly 81 years old, and was surrounded by good health prior to this death. Many people were both shocked and saddened by this death. Many were screaming RIP and were worried no more Godzilla movies would come to be. Although he was worldly known and very popular, he still made a lot of time for his friends. During his last few years on earth he lent his directing talents to one of his friends Akira Kurosawa, for his personal films. Honda actually directed several parts of his friends film, which was called “Dreams” He was a man of his word and a man of great, strong, relationships with those he loved. We could all certainly learn from this man.

Honda was a man who let nothing get in his way of what he loved. Even during his later years, when he became ill and fragile, he dedicated his time to film. This is what made him happy and nothing could take his legacy or passion away. Godzilla movies are timeless, and people are still enjoying them today. Personally, I have watched several of these movies, including the original, and although the technology is a little ancient, one can still enjoy in the plot and action of such films.

One trade mark that Honda included in his films was often having scenes included in his films that reflected his feelings during WW2. These were incorporated by including humans being crowded and ambushed. The war was a huge impact on his films, and his life in general. This war was said to be one of the worst ones, luckily this talented man had survived it. He speaks fondly of the matter, because if it wasn’t for these events, many of his production would not have been born. Honda was a fighter, and despite his difficulties in life, he continued to persist. A quality that isn’t found too often today. Instead of learning from bad experiences, people tend to let them hold them back.

A famous quote said by Honda is: “Monsters are born too tall, too strong, too heavy, that is their tragedy.” I think what he means by this is that humans fear monsters because of this reasoning, when in fact, monsters are not as bad as we think. Although, the monster Godzilla is depicted as scary and ferocious. In my opinion, the real monsters one should worry about are other human beings. Honda was sort of mysterious, he said things like this that makes audiences wonder what he’s trying to say.

The legacy of Honda will forever be in the hearts of his fans. Even with him being dead nearly 24 years now, people still watch these films worldwide. I think thatthis is an indicater of how well he did on Earth. No one can ever forget this man, because his works were great and plenty. His perseverance is impecible, and I desire to be as successful as he was. After conducting this research, I can see why this man has won so many awards and recognitions. We can all aim to incorporate his favorable characteristics into our own lives.

Moby Dick ends with the unexpected death of everyone on the ship but Ishmael. Throughout the novel, the ship and its mates serve as a microcosm of the society for Melville to critique. Each character represents certain qualities and ideals that Melville, in turn, judges. Ishmael’s survival is an intrinsic statement of approval of his character. With everyone else dead, it is not clear what about Ishmael’s character makes him superior to the rest of the crew. If survival is Melville’s stamp of approval, it seems flawed that Ishmael should live; but under careful observation, it is clear that Ishmael is the only one worth the achievement.

Ishmael’s greatest trait is his incredible balance; he exemplifies many qualities we admire in other individuals without being consumed by them. Additionally, he has the ability to maintain this balance while others cannot. Ahab, for example, has a firm understanding of fate, a quality of which Melville obviously approves. However, Ahab can think of nothing other than his fate, and is enveloped by it in every aspect of his life. Likewise, Starbuck is noble and has clearly-defined morals to which he clings. Yet those morals stand in the way of him doing what is best for his shipmates. When he has the opportunity to kill Ahab and consequently save all members of the crew, he cannot do so because he finds it to be too reprehensible. Consequentially, and because Starbuck cannot intervene, Ahab is doomed to succumb to his inevitable fate. What is ultimately clear as Melville’s preferred way of being is a balance of these distinctive traits. In “The Albatross,” Melville conveys a belief which helps us understand that:

But in pursuit of those far mysteries we dream of, or in tormented chase of that demon phantom that, some time or other, swims before all human hearts; while chasing such over this round globe, they either lead us on in barren mazes or midway leave us whelmed (259).

Melville believes that when we come to understand parts of ourselves through philosophy or experience we do not find anything new. Anything that we discover was there all along. The human tendency, he suggests, is to go out in search of ourselves. These sorts of plights are most often futile, and always unnecessary. His most important belief is that the means by which we discover our inner selves do not change the outcome; what we find is the same. Implicitly, any given philosophical ideal is only valuable insofar as it helps us achieve our greater, ultimate goal – that of self-discovery. Furthermore, philosophy and ideals are useless when they come into conflict with introspection, and balance. Their only purpose is to help us to know ourselves more fully.

In this respect, Ishmael is superior; he does not become entangled with any one particular ideal, but instead uses each of them merely to sustain his more important, introspective goal. He evolves to become a more balanced, self-aware individual by the end of his journey. Ishmael is the only individual who undergoes a great change from the beginning to the end of the novel, while his shipmates remain static and therefore are doomed.

Ishmael begins his journey in a dismal state, with no apparent purpose; he wanders the island of Manhattan alone, and seems to be very depressed. However pitiable his state may be, Ishmael is certainly aware of his need for direction. In the first paragraph of the novel, he asserts that whenever he is in such a deplorable condition, “then [he] account[s] it high time to get to sea as soon as [he] can.” (3). This is the first of many instances in which Ishmael demonstrates his knowledge of his own limitations. Though it will take him a considerable amount of time, Ishmael knows that he must remedy his wandering state. He believes that being alone in the vast ocean will give him time to reflect and find a purpose. It will allow him to establish himself, and to find a place in the society. Ishmael knows that the sea, as his vehicle for self-discovery, holds the cure for his maladies.

Ishmael does find himself wandering in the opening weeks of his voyage. He is in awe of the vast ship, and spends time observing his shipmates. His particular interest evidently lies in Ahab. Ishmael’s early impression of Ahab shows us that he is drawn to Ahab’s oddness, and seeks to quantize and qualify what makes him different. “So powerfully did the whole grim aspect of Ahab affect me, and the livid brain which streaked it, that for the first few moments I hardly noted that not a little of this overbearing grimness was owing to the barbaric white leg upon which he partially stood.” (135). Because Ishmael is unsure of where he, himself, stands, he cannot really understand himself. Instead, he yearns to evaluate others. This is remedied once Ishmael is more comfortable in his environment, but he never quite escapes his fascination with Ahab.

But after being on board the ship for a considerable length of time, Ishmael finds his niche among the crew. He begins to assert his role amongst the others, and proclaims that he is one of them; “I, Ishmael, was one of that crew; my shots had gone up with the rest; my oath had been welded in theirs…I and all the others had taken our oaths of violence and revenge.” (194). At this point, the present Ishmael helps us reflect on his past self, and observe the change that he has endured. No longer is he the uncertain outsider to whom we are introduced on the first page. He starts the novel saying, “Call me Ishmael,” illustrating his hesitant state of mind. But here, it seems that he is Ishmael, owns his name, and is a member of the society, comfortable in his own skin. His narration is empowered and lively. He gleans a sense of understanding and purpose from the other crew members, and unites with them against their common enemy – Moby Dick. Ishmael is not an integral member of the group, but the security that he derives from finding his place enables him to temporarily abandon some of his most difficult questions. He now feels as if he has a purpose, and his introspective pursuit falls subordinate to his position as a shipmate. He has not – and never will – forget about the reasons he decided to come aboard the Pequod. But owing to his newfound sense of place, Ishmael no longer desperately seeks the answers to his life questions. Rather, with his time in high demand, he is comfortable to be shaped by his experiences aboard the ship.

Through the evolution of his friendship with Queequeg, Ishmael learns to understand and manage his fear of the unknown. When he meets Queequeg for the first time, Ishmael admits that he is profoundly frightened. He knows nothing about Queequeg but that of his reputation as a peddler of heads. Faced with his sudden presence in the middle of the night, Ishmael admits to being profoundly frightened. At the same time, he recognizes that “Ignorance is the parent of fear” ( 24), owning his weakness. This statement, an obvious reflection of the present Ishmael upon his past experiences, elucidates the change that he undergoes. He explains that because he knows nothing about Queequeg, he harbors and unwarranted fear. But as the two get to know each other, it is clear that there is nothing to be afraid of. On the ship, they spend a great deal of time together. Ishmael learns from Queequeg on many occasions, such as when they sit metaphorically threading the strings of fate in, “The Mat-Maker.” Indeed, Queequeg is more of a model than any other character in the novel. After this experience, Ishmael learns to model Queequeg in feeling appropriate amounts of trepidation towards things that deserve to be feared.

The way in which Ishmael describes his reverence of the White Whale comes from what Queequeg teaches him about Nature. As he starts to understand the greatness of Nature, and all of her creatures, Ishmael takes it upon himself to discover what it is that is so terrible about the whale. This discovery is monumental for Ishmael because he delves deeply into the thoughts of the human race – a thing he would never have attempted before his journey. He indicates that “there yet lurks an elusive something in the innermost idea of this hue, which strikes more of panic to the soul than that redness which affronts blood.” (205). Obviously, there is something to be feared in the whale. But instead of blindly labeling it terrifying, Ishmael successfully explains why he should fear, respect, and revere the whale.

Ishmael also learns to understand and respect that which Queequeg reveres in Nature. Ishmael’s original perspective is limited only to how Nature can help him become more introspective. His only aspiration for his journey is to take advantage of the solidarity that Nature offers. Being along on the waters, with nothing more to distract him, will facilitate greater self-understanding. In the chapter, “The Mast-Head”, when Ishmael stands one hundred and fifty feet above the ground, looking out over the sea, he demonstrates his new perspective through a discussion of his position:

There you stand, a hundred feet above the silent decks, striding along the deep, as if the masts were gigantic stilts, while beneath you and between your legs, as it were, swim the hugest monsters of the sea…lost in the infinite series of the sea, with nothing ruffled but the waves. The tranced ship indolently rolls; the drowsy trade winds blow; everything resolves you into languor. For the most part, in this tropic whaling life, a sublime uneventfulness invests you; you hear no news; read no gazettes; extras with startling accounts of commonplaces never delude you… (169).

When Ishmael depicts his feelings about his situation so high up on the masts, he displays a new sense of awe towards Nature. He describes a greatness of the sea, and its power to hypnotize him. There is a sense that the plights of Ishmael’s existence are trivialized by Nature’s power. But Ishmael does not seek to explain or control that which he observes. He is no great philosopher, and that is part of what makes him so vital a crewmember. He does not overanalyze Nature or seek to understand it, but is content to have gleaned this new perspective. This perspective is important in the development of Ishmael’s narrative. He never forgets the respect that he acquires for Nature with Queequeg as his guide. Even in the last part of his journey, when he describes the Pequod’s fall from greatness, he displays this understanding: “…then all collapsed, and the great shroud of the sea rolled on as it rolled five thousand years ago” (624). As the Pequod and its crew are swallowed in a wave, Ishmael notes that the sea is not disturbed. As important as the fall of the Pequod is to some, it is inconsequential in light of the enormity of Nature. This is an observation that Ishmael could not have made before his journey, because he would have been caught up in the monstrosity of the disaster. But with Queequeg’s understanding and a sense of perspective, Ishmael is able to properly and adequately place the Pequod’s fall from greatness into the larger scheme of events.

Ishmael’s understanding of fate and free will, and the roles that each plays, evolves in light of such introspection. In the first chapter, Ishmael’s declaration “Who ain’t a slave?” shows that he feels bent to the wills of a number of different forces. He does not proclaim any discontent with his apparent inability to affect his fate; rather, Ishmael tries to convince the reader that he has no free will, and is, in effect, powerless. He says, “However they may thump and punch me about, I have the satisfaction of knowing that it is all right; that everybody else is one way or other served in much the same way…” (6). Ishmael justifies his enslaved mentality by implying that he resigns up to be ruled by his fate. However, this is more a reflection of Ishmael’s initial, deplorable state than his actual nature. Later, once he is more comfortably situated on the ship, he reveals a new perspective. He comes to understand that he is not powerless, and that his choices can, indeed, effect change.

Once aboard the Pequod, Ishmael’s view of fate changes significantly, as he recognizes the power of his free will. In the chapter “The Mat-Maker,” he and Queequeg sit weaving the metaphorical threads of fate. Here, Ishmael displays a changed perspective of fate and free will, as he describes the ways in which they are intertwined:

The straight warp of necessity, not to be swerved from its ultimate course - its every alternating vibration, indeed, only tending to that; free will still free to ply her shuttle between given threads; and chance, though restrained in its play within the right lines of necessity, and sideways in its motions directed by free will, though thus prescribed to by both, chance by turns rules either, and has the last featuring blow at events (234).

Now Ishmael recognizes that free will does have a place in his fate. Though its role is limited, and confined by the works of chance and necessity, free will does have some power to affect fate. These proclamations exude a greater personal power than Ishmael originally leads us to believe that he has. But just after declaring these sentiments, the “ball of free will drops” from his hands, at the spotting of the whale. Ultimately, thought Ishmael is not a slave to the whale in the way that Ahab is, his life is always to some degree controlled by it.

In light of such statements about the power of his choices, Ishmael seems to be remarkably passive. He does not, as one might expect, take on an active pursuit of affecting his fate. It would be sensible for Ishmael to become more active and involved in the goings-on of ship life, but instead, he continues to be the Ishmael that we have always known. In, “The First Lowering”, Ishmael recounts the horror-filled scene of the crew’s lowering for a whale. “A short rushing sound leaped out of the boat; it was the darted iron of Queequeg… lashing them across the gunwale, we tumbled back to our places. There we sat, up to our knees in the sea, the water covering every rib and plank…” (244-245). Here again, Ishmael plays the role of the observer. His presence on the boat is non-essential to the task at hand, as we see when Queequeg is the one taking risks to capture the whale. But here, Ishmael’s role as observer is not only essential, but indicative of his balance. Even when it seems Ishmael is fully aware of his power to affect his fate, he remains unchanged. This seems to make Ishmael a hypocrite; he makes a broad, philosophical statement only to ignore its implications. But this is really an indication of his balance. Ishmael becomes aware of, but not consumed by, his fate. He utilizes his realization in a reasonable way. It helps him understand his life, and categorize his decisions. It may have been fate that he should end up on a whaling ship, but in order to get there, Ishmael had to choose the Pequod. And it was only chance that the Pequod was one of the three ships amongst which Ishmael was forced to choose.

The transition from feeling enslaved by his fate, to being aware of and taking part in it is an important one for Ishmael. From a wandering, funeral-following hermit to a member of an important crew, he makes an important transition. His narrative is empowered with a sense of himself. Even when describing his role, albeit limited, in the first lowering of the Pequod, it is clear that Ishmael belongs. This transition is indicative of both the progress that he has made on his journey so far, and the equilibrium that this progress has helped him to achieve.

Though we are ultimately taken by surprise that Ishmael is the lone survivor of the Pequod’s fall from greatness, there are evidently great reasons for him to live on. Besides all of the personal qualities he exhibits that exemplify Melville’s ideal, Ishmael also has an important perspective. In light of his balance, and general understanding, he is the perfect narrator. He embodies the life of the ship, with his different relationships and general familiarity with other members of the crew. His position is as objective as could be expected because he does not possess any great skill that inextricably links him to the ship. Though Ishmael would never say so, he is not a vital part of the crew. His importance, therefore, lies outside the bounds of the ship. Without him, the Pequod’s story is lost forever, and no one can learn from her failure. Though there are other individuals on the ship, none could present the journey in a more realistic way than Ishmael. Each has his own bias, or fanatic philosophy. But Ishmael, in his perfect equilibrium, presents the story to an audience for them to make of it what they may.

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Melville develops a unique approach for inserting his ideas into his novel, without directly stating them. They are not at all obvious to the reader, but upon careful examination, we see that his stamp of approval is his choice to give life to Ishmael. This leaves the reader with a certain amount of work to do to discover what about Ishmael makes him worthy of such approval. On the few occasions when Melville shines through clearly, his style is comparative to that of Mark Twain. Rather than bury his sentiments like Melville, Twain disguises them in his characters – his voice can certainly be heard in the novel. He uses monologues given by individuals we admire in order to assert his ideas into the novel. It is also worth noting that the form of his narrative – the protagonist is a young boy – does not lend itself well to philosophical commentary. That said, Twain does use the ending of Huckleberry Finn in much the same way as Melville. The fates of his characters make both political and social statements on the complexity – or lack thereof – of human nature. Moby Dick’s length and form make it opportune for Melville to develop and assert his opinions as he does, in addition to using the fates of his characters. With his sophisticated approach, he creates a challenge for his readers. They must search, and scrape below the surface, to find out what he believes to be ideal.

“Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a wide wide sea!

This soul hath been

Alone on a wide wide sea:

So lonely 'twas, that God himself

Scarce seemed there to be.”

-The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

On the surface, Herman Melville’s Moby Dick suggests an entwined universe of events captained by fate. However, Melville’s novel also explores spiritual isolation as a universal human reality that creates events both independent from, and a part of, this fate. Ishmael's experiences aboard the Pequod are archetypal examples of human isolation and sociality. In the character of Ishmael, Melville reconciles the idea of an ultimately unknowable cosmos to human purposefulness and fulfillment. “And I only am escaped alone to tell thee,” the author cites Job, reminding the reader that the story of Moby Dick will be reiterated by a single storyteller, who represents the indelible loneness of all humanity. While the world of Moby Dick often appears irrational, cruel and meaningless, Ishmael’s greatest achievement is his ability to derive value from social interaction, thus allowing him to connect to a collective human experience.

The first appearance of Ishmael shows him caught up in his own isolation and desperate to escape on a sea adventure. Ishmael is only too aware that he is alone and deliberately joins an enterprise that will bring him closer to others: “Whenever I find myself growing grim about the mouth…whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me…then, I account it high time to get to sea as soon as I can. This is my substitute for pistol and ball” (1). His early travels bring him into contact with Queequeg, who provides Ishmael with a defining emotional connection. Queequeg is one of the characters with the most reason to disengage himself from the company of others. He is considered a “savage” in a culture whose practices and language are largely unfamiliar to him. Very few individuals are willing to approach Queenqueg. However, Queequeg may easily be one of the most open and serene characters in Moby Dick. “Savage though he was, his countenance yet had a something in it which was by no means disagreeable. You cannot hide the soul. Through all his unearthly tattooings, I thought I saw the traces of a simple honest heart,” Ishmael observes of his companion, noting that, “he seemed entirely at his ease; persevering the utmost serenity; content with his own companionship; always equal to himself” (71-72). Ishmael continues, admitting, “I felt a melting in me. No more my splintered heart and maddened hand were turned against the wolfish world. This soothing savage had redeemed it” (73). It is in this scene that the isolated Ishmael begins to transform. He becomes aware that there is a worthwhile individual outside of his philosophical personal musings, whom he does not have to guard himself from. Rather, Ismael realizes that he can in fact befriend Queenqueg and engage in a mutual and accepting relationship. As a result, Ishmael becomes acquainted with a man who has achieved the personal peace that Ishmael seeks.

Ishmael is a storyteller and a philosopher, surrounded by a ship full of comrades. However, he and his shipmates are isolated souls, and he is persistently aware of that fact, saying, “They were nearly all Islanders in the Pequod, Isolatoes too, I call such, not acknowledging the common continent of men, but each Isolato living on a separate continent of his own” (174). Throughout Ishmael’s journey aboard the Pequod, Melville portrays a fluctuation between isolation and sociality as Ishmael struggles to come to terms with a universe that he believes is governed by an unknowable divine, allowing little purpose to the human beings occupying it. He yearns to connect with someone or something that will give him purpose and the largely foreign crew of the Pequod seems to enforce his despair. Whether because their of races, stations, or circumstances, the individuals aboard the ship seem indelibly disparate. Ishmael ponders the presence of Ahab, the man “fated” to be apart from humanity by choice and chance. However, Ishmael is also aware of the fact that “every mortal that breathes…has this Siamese connexion with a plurality of other mortals” (463).

A pivotal moment for Ishmael occurs during Chapter XCIV, “A Squeeze of the Hand,” during which the crew dismantle Stubbs’ whale. While the crewmembers are squeezing globules of sperm, Ishmael is overcome by his sense of connection to his fellow beings:

I found myself unwittingly squeezing my co-laborers’ hands in it…

Such an abounding affectionate, friendly, loving feeling did this

Avocation beget; that at last I was continually squeezing their hands,

And looking into their eyes sentimentally; as much as to say,--Oh!

My dear fellow beings, why should we longer cherish any social

Acerbities, or know the slightest ill-humor or envy! Come let us

Squeeze hands all round; nay, let us all squeeze ourselves into each

Other; let us squeeze ourselves into the very milk and sperm of

Kindness (601).

While this section is doubtlessly tinted with Ishmael’s characteristic sarcasm, his sentiments are nonetheless genuine. During this time, he realizes, “Man must eventually lower, or at least shift his conceit of attainable felicity; not placing it anywhere in the intellect or the fancy; but in the wife, the heart, the bed, the table, the saddle, the fire-side, the country” (602). Ishmael realizes that moments are the best part of live. Momentary human contact allows one to share life experiences with others and enjoy fulfillment. In Chapter XCVI, “The Try-Works,” Ishmael further reflects, “Give not thyself up, then, to fire, lest it invert thee, deaden thee; as for the time it did me. There is a wisdom that is woe; but there is a woe that is madness” (612). Ishmael can finally identify his problem, which is that he has been feeding the consuming “fire” of self-focus. An undeterred focus on oneself, he says, such as that which engenders Ahab’s estrangement from his fellow human beings, is foolish and often fatal. Ahab’s monomaniacal focus on the whale and on his own revenge, has alienated him from others and as a result of this “sin,” his crew is caught up in a thoughtless tragedy. It is a mirror to Ishmael’s own tragedy at the outset of the novel-- the one that would have him “involuntarily pausing before coffin warehouses” (1).

Much like the ancient mariner of Coleridge’s famous poem, who receives a nod from Melville in the chapter LII, “The Pequod meets the Albatross,” Ishmael eventually learns to shift his focus onto others. He realizes that while the world and the question of fate and diety may be unsolved, the world has its beautiful moments, and these are ultimately redemptive. Ishmael survives not because he is better or more moral than the other characters in the novel; he is not. His survival is founded on chance, as many things in this novel are. Ishmael endures due to the fact that he bears the burden of knowledge: the story of Ahab and the white whale, Moby Dick. As the lone storyteller, the story becomes Ishmael’s redemption and his discovery of purpose. Redemption allows him to return to the ocean, to survive his experience on the Pequod without bitterness, and to come to a place of peace. Perhaps Ishmael’s finest moment of reflection comes earlier in the novel, amidst the story’s retelling:

And thus, though surrounded by circle upon circle of consternations and affrights, did these inscrutable creatures at the center freely and fearlessly indulge in all peaceful concernments; yea, serenely reveled in dalliance and delight. But even so, amid the tornadoed Atlantic of my being, do I myself still for ever centrally disport in mute calm; and while ponderous planets of unwaning woe revolve around me, deep down and deep inland there I still bathe me in eternal mildness of joy (561).

Most importantly, Ishmael has achieved wisdom- he is a mirror of his world and those who have touched it. He has come to accept the unknowns of his universe and gratefully accept fleeting moments of “felicity.” And this is Ishmael’s albatross: we are all part of something larger than ourselves within the bond of human experience.

Works Cited

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.” August 2003. Project

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Gutenberg: Online Book Catalog. 6 March 2008. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12713

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Islam and Western world
3. Conclusion

Introduction

These days it is in the nature of things that if one needs to discuss the challenges presented to Islam by the west and, in fact by modern civilization in general. One must start by using the sword of discrimination and by embarking on a kind of ‘’ intellectual iconoclasm”. These days the modern world takes pride in having developed the critical mind and the power of objective criticism, whereas in reality it is in the fundamental sense the least critical of all known civilization for it does not possess the objective criteria to judge and criticize its own acts. It is an institution which fails in every kind of basic reform because it cannot begin with the reform of itself. Furthermore, there is an old saying which states that the devil hates sharp edges and points. This saying has some actuality to it which applies directly to this current present-day situation. The devil displays his influence by dulling all the sharp edges and points which are accessible to him so that sharp distinctions disappear. The boundaries of clearly defined doctrines undergo a corrosive process and their sharpness of definition gradually declines. The rights and wrong become intermingled, and even scared rites and doctrines which are the most valuable gift of God to man, becomes unclear and indefinite as a result of this corrosive influence. So this paper discusses the relationship of Islam and Western world and the challenges presented by it.

Islam and Western world

To discuss the challenges of the modern world to Islam requires a rigorous application of intellectual discernment based solely on the Shahadah, the first letter of which when written down in Arabic, is in fact in the form of a sword. This sword must be used to break the untruthful idols of the new age of ignorance or Jahiliya. One must always remember that in the present situation any form of criticism of the modern world based upon metaphysical and religious principles is a form of charity and in agreement with the most central virtues of Islam. Also, Muslims should never forget that Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) not only possessed adab in its most perfect form but also asserted the truth in the most frank and straightforward manner. There were periods in the life of the Prophet (PBUH) when he was extremely categorical, and he never sacrificed the truth’s sake of adab.

What is missing in the Islamic world today is a thorough examination and careful criticism of all that is happening in the modern world. Without such criticism, nothing serious can ever be done in the business of confronting the west. All statements of modernized Muslims begin with the assertion, “The way to harmonize Islam” and conclude with whatever follows the “and”, are bound to end in catastrophe unless what follows is another divinity revealed and inspired worldviews. Furthermore, attempts to harmonize Islam and western socialism or anything else of the kind is doomed from the start because they begin without exposing the system in question to a thorough criticism in the light of Islamic principles, and also because they consider Islam as a partial view of things to be complemented by some form of modern ideology rather than a complete system and perspective in itself whose very existence excludes the possibility of its becoming a mere adjective to modify some other noun which is taken almost unconsciously as central in place of Islam. The swift changes in fashions of the day which Islamic socialism popular on day and liberalism or some other westernism the next is proof of the absurdity and shallowness of such an approach. A person who really understands the structure of Islam in its entirety knows that Islam can never allow itself to be reduced to the status of a mere modifier, or contingency a system of thought which remains independent of it. The defensive and apologetic attitude adopted by so many modern Muslims towards various fashionable modes of thought that issue from the west almost with the rapidity of seasonal changes is closely allied to their lack of a critical sense and a discerning spirit. Mostly, obvious inadequacies and what is easy to criticize are criticized, but only a few have enough courage to stand up and criticize the basic fallacies of our time. Nowadays there are only a few people in the Islamic world who can challenge the west and criticize and with the sword of intellect and the spirit, answer at its very foundations the challenge with which the west confronts Islam.

Nowadays in the Islamic world, there are essentially two main classes of people concerned with philosophical, religious, and intellectual questions, the ulma and modernists. It is only recently that a third group has begun to emerge, namely a group which, like the ulma is traditional, but which also knows the modern world. But the number of this third group is still very inadequate. As the ulma and the other spiritual authorities are concerned, they usually do not possess a profound knowledge of the modern world its difficulties and complexities. Regardless of that, they are the upholders of the Islamic tradition and its protectors, without them the very existence of the tradition would be threatened. The ulma are criticized by the modernists for not knowing western science and philosophy or the workings of modern economics. But the criticism, which is again of the facile kind so easily leveled by the modernists, is for the most part misplaced. Those who possessed the political and financial power in the Islamic world during the past century rarely allowed the madrasahs to develop in a direction that would permit them to give the ulama class the opportunity of gaining a better understanding of the modern world without becoming corrupted by it. In few places where attempts were made to change the syllabus of the madrasah the hidden intention was more often to do way with the traditional education system by deforming it beyond hope of redemption than to extend its program in any real sense to embrace courses which would acquaint the students with the modern world as seen in the light of Islamic teachings. Moreover, few attempts have been carried out to create establishments that would fill in the gaps between the traditional madrasahs and modern educational institutes. Furthermore, in the second of our three classes, we have the product of either western universities or universities in the Islamic world which are more or less similar to the west. Now the universities in the Islamic world are in a state of an identity crisis, for an educational system is organically related to the culture within whose atmosphere it functions. For example, a train can be made to arrive at a terminal of any country in Asia or Europe, no matter where it may be, it will always be identified as a part of its original country. The same cannot be said about an educational system because an educational system cannot be simply imported, and the fact that modern universities are facing a calamity in the Islamic world of a different nature from that which is found in the west is itself proof of this assertion. The crises could not but exist, because the original Islamic culture is still alive. Moreover, this crisis affects deeply those who are educated in these universities and who are usually called “the Intelligentsia”. This expression, like the term intellectual, is one that is most unfortunate in that those to whom it is applied are often the furthest detached from the domine of the intellect in its true sense. But by whatever name they are called, most members of this class, who are products of western-oriented universities, have for the most part one feature in common, and that is the liking for all the things western and a sense of alienation to things Islamic. This inferiority complex is opposite to the west among so many modernized Muslim, the complex is which is, moreover, shared by modernized Buddhists, Hindus, and other Orientals how are affected by the psychosis of modern forms of idolatry is the utmost challenge facing the Islamic world, and it afflicts the very group which one would expect to face the challenge of the west. The encounter of Islam with the west cannot therefore be discussed without taking into consideration the type of mindset which is often the product of modern university education and which, during the past century, has produced most of the apologetic Islamic writings which try to concern themselves with the encounter of Islam and the west.

This remorseful, modernized type of approach has tried to answer the challenge of the west by bending backward in a servile attitude to show in one way or another that this or that element of Islam is just what is fashionable in the west today while other elements, for which there could not be found a western equivalence by even the greatest stretch of the imagination, have been simply brushed aside as unimportant or even extraneous later “accretions”. Limitless arguments have been presented for the hygienic nature of the Islamic rites of the “egalitarian” character of the message of Islam, not because such things are true if seen in the larger context of the total Islamic message, but because hygiene and egalitarianism are the currently accepted ideas in the west or at least they were before the “hippy” movement. By upholding such obvious and two easily defended characteristics, the apologetics have evaded the whole challenge of the west, which threatens the heart of Islam and which no number of attempts to placate the enemy can avert. ‘When surgery in needed there must be a knife with which to remove the infected zone’. Also, when error threatens religious truth nothing can replace the sword of criticism and discernment. One cannot remove the negative effect of error by making peace with it and pretending to be its friend.

The remorseful attitude is even more pathetic when it concerns itself with philosophical and intellectual questions. When people read some items in this category of apologetic literature, which issued mostly from Egypt and the sub-continent at the beginning of this era and which tried to emulate all ready very stale and defunct debates that went on between theology and science in Victorian England and France of the same period, the weakness of such works, which were supposed to answer the challenge of the west, becomes most apparent, and even more so against the background of the decades that have since gone by. Afforce, at that time one could hear the strong voice of the traditional authorities, who, basing themself on the immutable principles of the Islamic revaluation, try to answer these challenges on a religious level, even if they were not aware of the more abstruse and hidden philosophical and scientific ideas that were involved. But this type of voice gradually diminished, without, of course, ceasing to exist altogether, while the other, that of the modernists, became ever more audible and invasive. This phenomenon has led to the rather odd situation today in which, among the educated, practically the most ardent defenders of the western civilization in the world are western Orientals. Furthermore, for the modernized Muslims, particularly the more extreme among them, the true meaning of Islam has been for some time now that the west has dictated. If evolution has been in vogue “true Islam” is evolutionary. If it is socialism that is the fashion of the day, the ‘real teachings of Islam are based on socialism. Those who are familiar with this type of mentality and the works it has produced are most aware of its docile, servile, and passive nature.

Western secular politics is based on the notion that sovereignty belongs to individuals who select their governments through political consensus arrived at during free and regular elections. Islam believes that sovereignty belongs only to God and that a legitimate temporal government is so only for as long as it implements God's will and the Sacred Laws.

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Conclusion

Despite the overwhelming global influence of Western ideas, the West, of course, is not a monolithic presence. The 20th century has proved beyond any doubt that the ideals espoused in the West do not prevent hypocritical justifications for untenable attitudes towards the rest of the world, nor do they prevent total war between European nations. Western attempts to circulate ideas about Western civilization as 'universal civilization' have resulted in significant reactions against new imperialism: 'cultural imperialism', 'human rights imperialism', and so on. The religious revivals and reiterations of local, traditional values, among the younger generations in Islamic and Hindu beliefs especially, are often reactions against the insidiousness of Western cultural influences. Western societies must reconsider their ideas about the superiority of their ideals. Islam and the West have much to offer each other. Nothing productive will develop while the dominant attitudes are those of suspicion, bigotry, and fear. Islam once played an essential role in preserving knowledge during the ignorance and savagery of Europe's 'dark ages'. The rediscovery and enhancement of this knowledge helped to set Europe on the path to its modern dominance of science and technology. The grip of worldly and corrupted religious leaders was broken in Europe. At the same time, the suppression of ijtihad and rational dissent within Islamic civilizations by similar sorts of rulers caused the decline of the Islamic world, allowing the Europeans to indulge in imperialism and colonialism from the 18th century to the mid 20th century. A compassionate exchange of knowledge, flowing this time from Western societies to Islamic societies, may well revivify Islam and permit Islamic societies to enjoy a more creative and significant role in the modern world.

Table of contents

1. Meeting of Imam Malik and Imam Abu Hanifa
2. References:

Imam Abu Hanifa was born in the city of Kufa in Iraq. His father Thabit bin Zuta was also a trader from Kabul, Afghanistan. Imam Abu Hanifa was born 67 years after the death of Prophet Muhammad. Imam Abu Hanifa was greatly known for city planning, he was responsible for the city of Baghdad when it was founded. He was also a mathematician of the first magnitude. He had a lot of specific technical knowledge and used to implement it in his works. He was a rich man, a trader by profession and contributed a great deal in terms of financial aspects. He learned trading from his grandfather. Imam Abu Hanifah was the founder of Sunni Hanafi school of Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence). He was the one to define the principles of Fiqh (Usool e Fiqh). He helped in various Riba related policies and how the Islamic finance can be moved towards a better direction then the current conventional banking. Imam Abu Hanifa also cleared many doubts relating to some financial instruments that were present in his time and showed the right way according to Quran and Sunnah.

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Meeting of Imam Malik and Imam Abu Hanifa

Abu Hanifah was a silk fabric dealer. He used to offer silk fabrics in Kufa. He was outstanding for his genuineness and honesty in exchanges. Exchange profited him a ton in picking up learning of the exchanges and traditions of individuals in exchange. That set a handy check on his legitimate teaching (Fiqh) and influenced him to view the traditions when in doubt of enactment based on which numerous guidelines were figured.He said, “Knowledge never sinks into the mind of a person who acquires it for worldly purposes.”Abu Hanifah believed that interest for a Muslim in Darul Harb (A non-Muslim Country) is allowed by in certain conditions that include:

1. The person has a genuine need and reason,
2. He does not intent for any fraud or default,
3. He has no other way or option in that situation. Riba is prohibited in Islam but these are some conditions for extreme situations that a Muslim might face.

Imam Abu Hanifah characterized Riba Al Fadl, which is to exchange two commodities that are different and one gets a excess benefit, into two possible scenarios that are Weight and Volume. This implies that the transaction should be hand to hand and none should receive excess benefit because that would be considered Riba Al Fadl.Imam Abu Hanifa also presented his view on an important financial instrument that is Sub Lease. In the event that the rented resource is utilized distinctively by various clients, the resident can't sub-rent the rented resource aside from with the express authorization of the lessor. In the event that the lessor allows the resident for subleasing, he may sub-rent it. In the event that the lease guaranteed from the sub-renter is equivalent to or not as much as the lease payable to the proprietor/unique lessor, all the perceived schools of Islamic law are consistent on the pass ability of the sub rent. In any case, the suppositions are distinctive on the off chance that the lease charged from the sub-resident is higher than the lease payable to the proprietor. Imam al-Shafi'i and some different researchers permit it and hold that the sub lessor may appreciate the surplus got from the sub-renter. This is the favored view in the Hanbali school also. Then again.

Imam Abu Hanifah is of the view that the surplus got from the sub-renter for this situation isn't reasonable for the sub-lessor to keep and he should give that surplus in charity. In any case, if the sub-lessor has built up the rented property by adding something to it or has leased it in a money not the same as the cash in which he himself pays lease to the proprietor/the first lessor, he can guarantee a higher lease from his sub-resident and can enjoy the excess. Despite the fact that the perspective of Imam Abu Hanifa is more safeguarded towards which ought to be followed up on the most ideal degree, in instances of need the perspective of Shafi’I and Hanabali schools might be taken after in light of the fact that there is no restriction in the holy Quran or in the Sunnah against the surplus asserted from the resident.Imam Abu Hanifah and Imam Shafi’I were among the pioneers that introduced the debates and legality on sukuk, another important financial instrument nowadays. Each of them introduced their own ijtihad methods to conclude at the rulings on sukuk. Thoughts of Imam Abu Hanifah can be found in the introduction of Fiqh and Usool e Fiqh(Principles).

According to Imam Abu Hanifah the term Sukuk can be equated to bai’u al-gaibah (sale without available items). In formulating the legal ruling, Imam Abu Hanifah was more rationally inclined and contextually derived. He introduced his theory on the behalf of the istihsan method. The contemplations of Imam Abu Hanifah and Imam Syafi'i to decide the pertinent legitimateness of sukuk instruments are practically equivalent to the aqd al-salam, aqd al-istihna', and aqd al-ijarah, in light of the fact that the deal and buy of these exchanges are without the question. These two inescapable researchers surrendered qiyas technique. Imam Abu Hanifah utilized istihsa bi al-nas, istihsan bi al-ijma', furthermore, al-istihsan bi al-darurah hypothesis. Meanwhile Imam Syafi'i utilized takhsis technique, the levels of legitimate decisions (masadir al-ahkam), and fundamental comprehension on the dialect. In spite of the fact that verbally the ijtihad technique for these two fast approaching researchers is extraordinary, anyway the definition of lawful decisions on sukuk by Imam Abu Hanifah, through istidlal al-hukm, and Imam Syafi'I, through istinbaht al-hukm permitted the sukuk instruments in light of Islamic legitimate decisions.

Imam Abu Hanifah and Imam Ahmad are of the view that no commitment in kind is worthy in a Musharakah. Their point of view depends on two reasons: They say that the commodities of each accomplice are constantly recognizable from the products of the other. For instance, if A has contributed one machine to the business, and B has accompanied another machine, every single one of the two machines is the elite property of its unique proprietor. Presently, if the machine of A is sold, its deal continues ought to go to A. B has no privilege to guarantee an offer in its cost. Accordingly, so far as the property of each accomplice is recognized from the property of the other, no association can occur. In actuality, if the capital put by each accomplice is as cash, the offer capital of each accomplice can't be recognized from that of the other, in light of the fact that the units of cash are not distinguishable, in this way, they will be considered to shape a typical pool, and subsequently the organization appears. Besides, they say, there are various circumstances in an agreement of Musharakah where the accomplices need to depend on redistribution of the offer cash-flow to each accomplice. In the event that the offer capital was as products, such redistribution can't happen, on the grounds that the items may have been sold around then.

On the off chance that the capital is reimbursed based on its esteem, the esteem may have expanded, and there is a probability that an accomplice gets all the benefit of the business, due to the thankfulness in the estimation of the products he has contributed, leaving nothing for the other accomplice. On the other hand, if the estimation of those items diminishes, there is a plausibility that one accomplice anchors some piece of the first cost of the product of the other accomplice notwithstanding his very own venture.There is a major distinction between putting a condition in the deal and making a different guarantee without making it a condition. On the off chance that the condition is explicitly said at the season of offer, it implies that the deal will be legitimate just if the condition is satisfied; meaning in this manner that if the condition isn't satisfied in future, the present deal will end up void. This makes the exchange of offer dependent upon a future occasion which might possibly happen. It prompts vulnerability (Gharar) in the exchange which is completely prohibited in Shari'ah.Imam Abu Hanifa also contributed to Dimishing Musharakah, another important financial instrument. This instrument implies that the owner and financer will be joint owners of the commodity and the financer will be paid off his share by the client in installments eventually decreasing the share of the financer and finally have no share of the financer in the end, while the client will have full ownership in the end of the installment periods.

Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Zufar were of the view that the commodity’s third undivided share cannot be leased out to a third party except the client and the finaner. While some other Imams believe that the undivided share can be sold out to a third party.Imam Abu Hanifa had a vast knowledge of Islamic Law. He studied law from the scholars in Kufa and afterwards from other teachers in Makkah. He was a very successful businessman who would never go against Quran and Sunnah. Once Imam Abu Hanifa’s business partner sold a consignment without letting the customer know about its little defect. When Imam Abu Hanifa got to know about this event, he immediately ordered the proceeds of that sale to be given in charity. He never failed to be an perfect example for how should one conduct and earn an honest living. Another example is when a women came to Imam Abu Hanifa with a silk dress, which she intended to sell for 100, but Abu Hanifa would not agree to buy it because he insisted that it has a value of more than that. That women went upto 400 but Imam Abu Hanifa was still insisting that she should demand more. That women looked at him suspiciously and said “Are you mocking me?” Imam Abu Hanifa said that she should consult an expert. When the expert came, he priced that dress for 500 and Imam Abu Hanifa agreed to buy it at that price. These little rules that were followed by out Imam’s are a example for us nowadays that these little things matter in business and that Allah is watching our every action. He would have bought that dress without even letting that women knowing the real value because was the one who approached first and was insisting for such a low price.

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Scholars have characterized the Science of Fiqh in various words, however the basic purpose of the considerable number of definitions is to comprehend Islamic law in the light of Qur'an and Hadith. Before we comprehend the Fiqh-e-Hanafi, we have to know an essential rule that Imam Abu Hanifa set for himself. He stated, "On the off chance that I need to know a decision of Shari'ah around an issue, I first observe Qur'an and Hadith. On the off chance that that issue has not been specified in them two, I look through the actions or activities of the associates. On the off chance that it is likewise not there, I experience the Fatawa of others, and think about my very own Qiyas or Ijtihad." He additionally says, "in the event that I get a Hadith (however feeble in Sanad) on a specific issue I generally lean toward Hadith over my own Ijtihad." Imam Abu Hanifa did not make this guideline all alone record, but rather he got it from the well- known Hadith in which the Prophet (PBUH) advised to Hazrat Mu'aaz bin Jabal to do as such. Imam Abu Hanifa gained from three exceptionally insinuate students of Hazrat Abdullah bin Masood. That is the reason, the Fiqh-e-Hanafi all in all depends on his Hadiths. He was a Faqih and individuals, notwithstanding when the Prophet (PBUH) was alive, swing to him in Masa'il of Shari'ah. He taught Qur'an and Hadith in Kufa. Shaikh Alqama bin Qais and Shaikh Aswad container Yazid were his two nearest students. When he said that whatever he gained from the Quran and Hadith, he instructed to Alaqam and now his insight was close to Alqama's.

References:

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3. Imam Abu Hanifa: His Status in Fiqh & Hadith. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.deoband.net/blogs/imam-abu-hanifa-his-status-in-fiqh-hadith
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6. Sarkun, M., & Saniff, S. (2018). Analysis on the Thoughts of Imam Abu Hanifah and Imam Syafi’i on the Ijtihad Method for Sukuk Instrument. Retrieved from https://jurnalteknologi.utm.my/index.php/jurnalteknologi/article/view/1205/1557
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8. Who was Abu Hanifa? What is his importance in Sunni Islam? - Quora. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.quora.com/Who-was-Abu-Hanifa-What-is-his-importance-in-Sunni-Islam

The financial crisis of the past decade has driven a gradual movement towards more equitable forms of banking. For instance, stricter regulations on capital requirements and consumer disclosure standards have been introduced as measures to prevent financial malpractice and predatory lending. However, many of these regulations are indiscriminate, and acts as a drag on the financial markets. More onerous is the accusation that regulations fail in creating an egalitarian system as capitalism and ethics are antithetical. Using the Deontological and Utilitarian frameworks, I will propose that the corporate structure of conventional banks often create an environment where immoral practices are promoted, and adherence to regulations are ineffective due to the complexity of enforcement. A rules-based approach cannot be a sustainable method of establishing an ethical financial market. On the other hand, Sharia Finance has often been heralded as an enlightened system due to the adherence to its Maqasid al-Shari’a (higher purposes). This paper aims to establish the Sharia Finance model as an ethical alternative to conventional banking and explore the feasibility of it’s implementation.

Islamic Banking and Finance (IBF) can be best described as a financial system that adhere to a set of religious rules called the Shari’ah that are defined by the Quran (Divine words of God), Sunnah (Teachings of the Prophet) and the Ijma (Consensus of Muslims). These rules mostly consist of restrictions on the ability of financial institutions to act in the best interests of their shareholders and were formed largely as a response to mercantilism in the late-Babylonic Middle-East.

IBF explicitly prohibits the taking of Riba, which in its broadest sense refers to usurious practices taken on by lenders that profit them at the expense of borrowers. Moreover, IBF discourages Gharar (contractual uncertainty) and Qimar (speculative activities), as risk-taking was generally frowned upon by the nomadic ancestors of Muslims. Additionally, loans to companies involved in the pork, drugs and cigarettes industries are also prohibited. The above-mentioned principles of IBF are restrictive in nature and limits the ability of Islamic Banks from borrowing and lending like a conventional bank would. Hence, bankers and scholars have adapted and devised several products largely based on the conventional model but modified in a way to comply with the Sharia regulations. At the heart of these products and restrictions, lie an ardent desire to promote ethical outcomes for the Muslim communities.

As this essay’s hypothesis concerns finding an ethical alternative to banks across ethno-religious backgrounds, theories relating to ethical relativism and divine command ethics are irrelevant and will not be considered. Instead, I will focus solely on critiquing it from the lenses of Rawlsian deontology and utilitarianism – 2 contrasting school of thought regarding morality.

Rawls theory of justice is a deontological theory, and within his theory of justice, lies the “difference principle”, which posits that society has a responsibility to alter the distribution of goods to provide for members who are less fortunate (Wenar, 2017). In this regard, IBF’s belief in aiding the under-privileged in the form of Zakat (religious taxes) is therefore ethically justified. Unlike most conventional banks, IBFs dedicate a portion of their loan book to the Qard-al-hassan, or benevolent loans (Iqbal & Shafiq, 2015). These funds are specially set aside entities that strives to provide interest free loans to serve social objectives and are most often used towards poverty alleviation. These loans do not reap the IBFs any monetary benefits and are backed only by the goodwill of borrowers rather than collateral. In stark contrast, many microfinance institutions that provide loans to unsecured borrowers are doing so out of profit, and regularly charge usurious rates with the global average standing at about 35% per annum (CGAP, 2008). Although Microfinance Institutes and Islamic Banks both provide loans to impoverished borrowers, they differ significantly when we assess the motivations that underpin their business model. Admittedly, only a portion of Islamic funds (Samad, 2012) are devoted to the Qard, but the motives behind its conception and the its universality amongst IBFs (Kazem, 2015) is evident of IBF’s keenness in promoting an egalitarian society.

This principle of justice is continuously emphasized across IBF’s other prohibitions. Gharar for instance, is defined as being present in transactions where consumers are unaware of details of the products purchased. The banning of Gharar aims to alleviate the information asymmetry between buyers and sellers, and thereby protect consumers from predatory merchants. Many conventional banking products like the collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) sold to retail investors would have been considered Gharar for the simple fact that their payoffs were largely dependent on extremely huge bundles of mortgages that would not have been easily accessed by consumers (Abbas J, 2015). Without the ability for investors to understand the individual details on these mortgages, it is very hard for them to assess the risks involved in investing in CDOs and the presence of this information asymmetry would be ethically unjustified from the perspective of Rawlsian deontology. Under an IBF model, products like CDOs and others of a derivative nature like investment-linked life insurance would be forbidden, and investors seeking to participate in capital markets would be sold only transparent and easily-understandable products.

These points highlight how Islamic Banks are guided by ethical principles, which ensures it prioritizes its responsibility to promote distributive justice.

Alternatively, we can also judge the ethicality of IBF through its outcomes by the utilitarian approach. In this, the ultimate goal of any model is to maximize utility for the greatest number of people (Al Hasan, etal., 2013). At first glance, it seems that the restrictive nature of Islamic Banks would serve as a detriment to economic development. However, empirical data from the IMF shows that there is a positive correlation between IBF development and increases in GDP (Imam & Kpodar, 2015). Moreover, as Islamic Banks were not permitted to invest in Gharar or risky instruments, there was a far muted risk of bank failures during financial crisis (Hasan & Dridi, 2010). The virtuous effects of these are significant, as bank failures are likely to spillover to other creditors and even other industries as demonstrated by the 2008 recession.

In addition, many established IBFs have the same level of profitability as their conventional counterparts, albeit having dissimilar sources of revenue – the former through the sharing in revenues of ventures and the latter through interest generated from lending activities. Yet, IBFs achieve more ethical outcomes through their non-predatory modes of lending. As the pursuit of ethical outcomes as interpreted by religious teachings is synonymous with the maximization of profits for its shareholders, we can identify IBF as an integrated model for Corporate Social Responsibility.

In this context, IBF’s alternative avenue of profits proves how the pursue of profit may not necessarily be in contradiction to the produce of social good. While this could be classified this as a rare situation where corporations take the socially responsible course of action because it is simultaneously able to meet the profitability criteria (Banerjee, 2008), the complementary ends are far from coincidental. Instead, it is the result of placing social good instead of profit maximization as the end in mind, then deriving the plausible means, the financial workaround to achieve this end. It does not reduce social good to an unconfirmed by product that is more likely to be produced from single-minded profit maximization allied with an appropriate framework of law (Friedman, 1970).

The combination of these would indicate that Islamic Banks does provide greater utility for the economy as a whole. If we also consider the distributive features of IBF as described in the previous section, we can then conclude that IBF is more ethical as it provides more utility for a greater number of people.

Now that we have evaluated the morality of the operations of Sharia banks in comparison to conventional banks, we explore the limitations of IBF that have prevented secular societies from adopting it.

Although IBF was designed with the prohibitions on interest and excessive uncertainty, many products of the modern version of IBF are designed to mimic conventional banking products. For instance, Murabaha is an Islamic debt instrument that mimics the conventional asset-backed loans in essence but circumvents the prohibition on interest by adjusting the principal repayable upwards (similar to a zero-coupon bond). Some Murabaha contracts even include periodic payments and labelled these interest payments as “principal repayments” (Copeman, 2012), ignoring the substance of the prohibition altogether. Although many other IBF products like Musharaka and Mudaraba are purely Islamic innovations, the vast majority of loans are of the Murabaha variant and results in more complicated and expensive transaction structures (Zandi & Mohd. Ariffin, 2012). Clearly then, IBF cannot be called ethical alternatives if its substance is identical to that of conventional finance products. It seems that actually being moral is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for being believed to be moral (Abend,2014).

The vast majority of IBF’s clients and employees are adherents to the Muslim faith, and whose motivations to comply with these laws are of an ontological-nature. Moreover, as most of IBF’s principles are based on hadiths or religious texts which seeks to command believers rather than to provide sound explanations, it would be hard for non-adherents to the faith to be convinced by these beliefs. If we were to consider IBF as a reliable alternative, only portions of IBF’s principles that can be justified in a secular manner should be applied.

As many of the principles behind IBF are based on the teachings of the Prophet in the 13th century, many of them do not consider innovations and changes in our modern society. For instance, the amount of cross border trade has increased tremendously, and our financial markets are extremely intertwined. By imposing restrictions based along religious lines, cash movements between Islamic and non-Islamic entities might be hindered. Moreover, the prohibitions on Gharar or risky products might actually be counter-intuitive, as the evolution of risk-based products like derivatives were developed mainly as a way for entities to reduce their exposure to risk through hedging. By banning the use of derivatives to hedge against naturally occurring risks, an entity cannot adequately protect its shareholders by mitigating these risks.

Evidently, the current Sharia model is ethical in principle, but cannot simply be transplanted onto secular societies in its current form, because it remains lacking when translating its virtuous intentions into practicable actions. Nevertheless, there remains some utility in the Sharia model, particularly when certain elements within the model can be isolated and applied to conventional banks.

Currently, most conventional banks derive the bulk of their revenue from the interest generated from lending activities. However, under the sharia model, banks are largely compensated through the sharing in revenues of ventures. These forms of partnerships are akin to equity stakes and have been shown, via quantitative studies, to be beneficial to lenders and creditors (Gonzalez, 2016). For instance, Smith and Warner (1979) argues that equity stakes will encourage banks to permit a greater level of risk, thereby reducing the risk of under-investment. Moreover, with a greater interest in the success of the company and the ability to obtain more information about their operations, the quality of due diligence conducted by banks would be enhanced (Park., 2000). Clearly, the ethical principles behind sharia’s ban on usurious loans does not deny positive economic externalities and thus, can be an element that local banks can progressively adopt to increase shareholder returns.

The Tulip Mania and the speculative activities in the real estate sectors are examples that speculative activities can be key contributors to financial instability (Wen & Wang, 2009). In particular, the prevalence of CDS (Credit Default Spreads) and the accompanied lack of equity capital backing them have been widely held to have contributed to the collapse of several banks and insurance firms during the 2008 financial crisis (Jarrow, 2011).

IBF, on the other hand, regards speculative activities as Maysir (gambling), which the Quran forbids because it intrinsically brings about an unequal distribution of wealth (Ar, 2016). The conventional banking system can place greater curbs on the level of speculative activities undertaken, and perhaps untie the compensation structure of top executives from the fickle speculative segment of banks. Drawing upon IBF’s prohibitions, our model can include proactive measures to limit the scale of speculative trading. These will serve to discourage hedging instruments like CDS from being mis-used as speculative instruments, therefore contributing to a more stable financial system (Chapra, 2011).

Another interesting feature within IBF is the ban on loans made out to haram (forbidden) industries such as trades involving pork, tobacco and drugs, while encouraging the disbursement of qard hasan loans that are interest-free to needy members of the community. Conventional banks on the other hand, take a much softer touch on ethical lending and only bars loans from being made out to illicit organizations. Companies like cigarette manufacturers that produce negative societal externalities can easily obtain loans from any conventional banks to invest in new factories or expand its distribution and marketing networks.

Regulators can thus mimic the IBF concept of selectively promoting and discouraging industries by their value to society, so as to complement the existing suite of Pigouvian taxes which have demonstrated itself to be less than effective in changing consumer behaviors (Pearl, Boisclair, & Ferrence, 2011). One avenue could be to charge fees and provide subsidies for banks based on the magnitude of externalities brought about by their operations. Not only will this hinder the growth of harmful industries, beneficial ones like charitable institutions will benefit from the lowered borrowing costs.

It is often said that there is “no need to reinvent the wheel”. However, even though our financial system has evolved over many centuries and developed in complexity and efficiency, it pales in comparison when assessing its contributions to the furthering of societal welfare. The new model proposed include processes to discriminate between socially beneficial and unproductive industries as well as partnerships between banks and lenders on ventures, which intrinsically promotes ethical decision making.

The adoption of a religious approach to regulating banking activities is not only confined to Islamic societies. Quakers too have long sought to apply the egalitarian aspects of their faith throughout the banking sector. This includes restricting their credit lines to only sectors that adhere to their religious convictions, a practice similar to IBF’s ban on lending to haram entities. Their approach to establishing integrity and mutual trust too, have contributed to the ascent of Quaker financial institutions like Barclays and Lloyds (Plender, 2012), and demonstrates the utility of certain religious ideals in establishing a competitive edge for financial institutions.

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Nevertheless, in the centuries that followed the founding of these Quaker banks, many have lost their ethical grounding in an increasingly competitive market. Notably, Barclays and Lloyds have both been embroiled in scandals over rate-rigging, fraudulent misrepresentations of products and corporate excesses. Hence, for IBF to contribute meaningfully to a more ethical financial system, managers have to themselves stay rooted to the principle values of which the very system stems from.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Islamic Banking
3. Model of Islamic Banking
MudarabahMusharakah
4. Commercial Banks In Muslim Lands
5. Islamic Banks In 20th Century

Introduction

Islamic banking business is banking activities based on Islamic or Shariah. It follows Islamic Rules on transactions. Islamic Banking is based on Islamic law also referred as Shariah law and guided by the Islamic economies. Islamic Banking is founded on two key factors-Religion and Profit . The organization must internalize the teachings of Islam. It will involve moral elements by the virtue of the factor of Imaan.(Faith and Believe). in the business operations. If the moral factors alone is given importance, there is possibility that the bank would experience losses and forced to ceased operations, so Islamic Banks also give dimensions to the business and also importance. Shariah prohibits Riba. Investment in business that provide goods or services contrary to Islamic principles is Haram. This prohibition is applied in many Muslim countries to prevent Un-Islamic Banking system. By applying these Islamic principles we can avoid Allah's anger. Bank should strictly follow Shariah and uplift the living standards of those who try to do so in Islamic way.

The concept of Islamic free banking is becoming widely popular in the non Islamic countries too. The interest free bank work with the rule that the lender must have a share from the profits or the losses. The lender and the borrower are like partners and that plays a major role in characterizing the social order.

The Islamic banking was introduced in july,1979 in the banking and financial system of Pakistan. The government of Pakistan decided that only Islamic system can ensure better standard of life. To make easy the introduction of interest free banking some necessary rules were made in the banking laws in June 1980 in Pakistan. Different companies start the business on the basis of interest free system.

Islamic Banking

In Late 20th Century number of Islamic banks formed to apply the Islamic principles. There number and size has grown so that by 2009, there were over 300 banks and 250 Mutual funds around world based on Islamic laws and around $to trillion were there in 2014.

Islamic law is derived from the following four sources.

1. The Holy Quran
2. The Sunnah of Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H)
3. Ijma
4. Qiyas The Holy Quran

Quran is one of the primary source of Islamic law. It includes many commandments, rules and principles for the behavior and relations of individuals in the society. Most of its principles are general in nature through some of them are well defined. The words of Quran are final and no one can change its text. The Sunnah Equally important the Sunnah the secondary source of Islamic law. The Sunnah are path or way of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). The Sunnah consists of the sayings, deeds and words ,action or even silence of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). ‘‘Take whatever the messenger gives you, and refrain from whatever he forbids you" (Al-Hashr)

In order to understand the teaching of Quran, the understanding of Quran ,the understanding of Sunnah is Compulsory. Ijma Ijma means the agreement of mujtihad of Ummah on an issue requiring the exercise of ijtihad. For Example: The institution of khilafat is established on the basic of ijma among the Islamic jurists. Qiyas Qiyas is the process in which Mujtihad extends sharia where there is no such guidence from sharia (similarity of cases) Deep insight is needed For Example: From wine, the jurists concluded and generalized that all things causing unconsciousness are prohibited by Islam. Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H): "Every loan that drives benefit (to the lender) is Riba " Also in Quran (surah-Al-Bakarah) "o those who believe; fear Allah and give up what still remains riba if you are believers. But if you do not do so, then be warned from Allah's was and his Messenger. If you repent even now, you have the right of the return of you principal; neither will you do wrong nor will you be wronged."

Model of Islamic Banking

Mudarabah

Mudarabah is a special kind of partnership where one partner providers the capital to the other (Mudarib) for investment in a commercial enterprise. According to Mufti Taqi Usmani a mudarabah arrangement differs from the musharakah in three major ways.

• The investment in musharakah comes from all the partners while in mudarabah, investment is the sole responsibility of rabb-ul-maal.
• In musharakah all the partners can participate in the managements of the business and can work for it, while the mudarabah the rabb-ul-maal has no right of participate in the management which is carried out by the mudaribonly.
• In musharakah all the partners share the loss to the extent of the ratio of their investment while in mudarabah the loss ,if only suffered by the rabb-ul-maal only, because the mudarib does not invest anything

Musharakah

Musharakah is the type of Shirkat-ul-Amwal which literally means sharing.

In the context of business, It refers to a joint enterprise share profit and loss of enterprise. Musharakah has far reaching implications for Islamic Banking and finance in the modern context and provides an excellent alternative to the interest based economy. In a musharakah, the party investing the capital shares equally in both the profit and loss, which is different from an interest based system where the upside is limited while the downside is very nearly nonexistent. These are two references clearly show that the profit leading to Riba is haram and against shariah Islamic Banking Transactions are Riba-free transactions. It ensures mutual benefit, covering and spreading risks of both counter parties. Islamic Banks do not provide any assistance and strictly discourages the production of goods and services which are against the Islamic values. Islamic banks should ideally have their own bench mark system for determination of profit. Since the industries in its initial stage of development; it is using the available bench mark for the banking industry. It is expected that once it is grown to a sizeable level it would have its own bench mark. However, using interest rate bench mark for determining the profit of any permissible transactions does not render the transactions as invalid or harm. It is the nature or mechanism of the transactions that determines its validity.

Islamic banking has the same purpose as conventional banking expect that it operates in accordance with the rules of shariah known as Fiqh-al-Muamalat. Islamic Banking activities must be practiced consistent with the shariah and its practical application through the development of Islamic economics. Many of their principle upon which Islamic banking is based are commonly accepted all over the world, for countries rather than decades. These principles are not new but are arguably, their original state has been altered over the countries. The principle source of the shariah is the Quran followed by the recorded sayings and actions of prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H), the hadith. Where solutions to problems cannot be found in the two source, Rulings are made based on the consensus of a community leaned scholars, independent reasoning of an Islamic scholar and custom, so long as such rulings to not deviate from the fundamental teachings in the Quran.

It is evident that Islamic finance was practiced pre-dominently in the muslim wend throughout, the middle ages, fostering trade and business activities. The Spain and the Mediterranean and Baltic states, Islamic Merchants become indispensable Middle-Men, for trading activities. It is claimed that many concept, techniques and instruments of Islamic finance were later adopted by European financiers and business man. The revival of Islamic banking coincided with the worldwide celebrations of the advent of the 15th Century of Islamic calendar (Hijra) in 1976. At the same time financial resources of Muslims particularly those of the end producing countries. Received a boost due to rationalization of the oil prices, which had hitherto been under the control of foreign oil cooperation. These events led Muslims to strive to model their lives in accordance with the ethics and principles of Islam.

Commercial Banks In Muslim Lands

Western commercial banks data from about two and a quarter countries ago, when the Western world was dispersing with moral and ethical consider actions in economics, when the Muslim world came into contact with west Muslims had two choice:

1. To accept commercial banking ,arguing that the interest charged by them, did not contain the element of the Riba prohibited in the Quran
2. To accept that interest charged was Riba and try to develop an alternative system of banking.

But ancient Muslim institutions, such as the Shariah courts had been made in effective by the power. Muslims had no alternative but to work with the coronial institutions, in duding commercial banking ;nevertheless, during the 19th century, several religions scholars argued that the term Riba refered to loans for consumption, which people found it difficult to repay, and not to commercial banking loans, where the debtor can repay from the profits. But the Quran makes no distinction between loans for consumption and loans for productive purposes, so their views wore rejected. As a consequence, Modern commercial banking did not make headway in muslim countries and to this day the presents and to conventional framework still dominates. The national financial system. The traditional functional reserve banking system was replaced with/by two separate financial restitutions:

• Deposit banks, which would maintain 100% Reserves. They could not fail the depositors and could not create or destroy effective money. They would simply accept deepest.
• investment trusts, which would perform the lending functions of existing banks such companies would obtain funds for lending by selling their own stock.

Islamic Banks In 20th Century

When in 1960s, Muslim thinking be gain to explore way and means of organizing commercial banking on an interest free basis, economists dismissed their work as the wishful thinking. But in 1963,in MIT GRAMY in Egypt, the first Islamic interest-free bank came into being. MT Gharm was a rural area and the people were religious. They did not place their savings in any bank, knowing that interest was far bidden in Islam. In these circumstances, the task was not only to respect Islamic value concerning interest, But also to educate people about the use of banking.

The following accounts were accepted:

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•  saving accounts
•  investment accounts
•  zakat account

No interest was paid on savings accounts but with drawls could be made on demand. Small, short term, interest free loans for productive purposes could be made funds in investment accounts were subject to restricted with drawls and invested on the basis of profit sharing. The Zakat account attracted the official amount of Zakat. The Mit Gharm project was success full, as deposits increased form 1963 to 1966. The bank was cautions, rejected about 60% of loans application and the default ratio was Zero. In economically good times, But project was eventually abandoned for political reasons. Nevertheless, it had shown that commercial banking could be organized on a non-interest basis. Conclusion In and all, Islamic Banks hold the system which is based on Islamic laws and rules. It prohibits Riba and fellows the sayings of Allah and his Messenger Muhammad (P.B.U.H). Ratio of Islamic banks have increased and have reached to a major amount.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Stop Blaming Muslims
British Muslims DemographicsProfessional DiscriminationPreventing Teachings of IslamExtremismIslamic extremism

Introduction

A Phobia is basically an illogical fear for any situation, object, or class of objects. In years a phobia commonly seen in the west is Islamophobia. A specific type of fear, prejudice, hatred, stereotypes against muslims and islam resulting in biased discrimination and suppressing muslims. Causes of Islamophobia in West Muslims practicing islam in Europe have different lifestyle from them. This muslim community can be recognized easily even from their getup. Muslim women wearing hijab, veil or doing any other traditional clothing, muslim men growing beards, wearing muslim caps on heads and going to mosques gives a visible difference as they are also asking for halal food and refusing clubs and brothels. Muslims are being perceived as a violent class in west because of many incidents happened in past.

Many controversies and fatwas plays a vital role in making image of muslims as extremist class. (Husain, 2014) Fatwas on Salman Rushdie for his Midnight’s Children and Satanic Verses as blasphemy against Islam made west think muslims as intolerant fanatics. (The Satanic Verses controversy) Danish cartoon controversy made west believe that muslims are humorless religious fanatics. Cartoons of Jesus were also drawn by Kurt Westergaard but no such protests were seen by Christians. (Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy) Reason of islamophobia is not only jihadist but many other social issues as many crimes are committed by muslims there. Illegal immigrants have majority of muslims involved. High birth rates, anti-social behavior, poor education and conservative cultural values are also causing English to go against muslims. (Rajaka)

Western media is also playing a role in promoting hatred against muslims. Why is every terrorist called MUSLIM TERRORIST or ISLAMIC MILITANT. Their claim of fighting for sake of islam is fallacious. An individual extremist is always associated with whole muslim community and this is done only in case of islam. (Munir, 2016). Britain media has also played well role in promoting islamophobia in Britain. A newspaper’s significantly misleading headline “UK mosques fundraising for terror”. The paper later clarified its wrong statement by noting “UK mosques were not involved in any way” when IPSO(Independent Press Standard Organization) judged it. A number of cases like this are seen every month. A misleading front page headline needs to be corrected by an equal front page size apology with financial penalty. (Versi, 2016) 9/11 9/11 a major cause of rise in islamophobia in west. Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City were attacked by planes.

On 11 September on a clear Tuesday morning an American Airlines Boeing 767 loaded with 20,000 gallons of jet fuel crashed into the north tower of World Trade Center in New York City. There was a burning hole on 80th floor of 110-story tall building. After 18 minutes second Boeing 767-United Airlines Flight 175 came and destroyed the building. Almost 3000 people were killed in this attack. (Templeton & Lumley, 2017) These attacks started a new phase of propaganda against muslims and islam. The terrorists who did these attacks were financed by Al-Qaeda and its head was Usama Bin Laden. Osama Bin Laden himself claims that Al-Qaeda was responsible for these attacks of 9/11. (Bergen, 2006) This attack started a new phase of violation against muslims. This incident totally changed life of muslims living in America. They were afraid to go out. They changed their way of dressing. They stopped going to mosques as some of them were burnt by someone and muslims did not felt them secure. Many muslims reduced their social circle because of the fear that was spread in muslims. (Ainslie, 2015) Hate Crime Incidents against muslims boosted after 9/11. According to FBI ( Federal Bureau Investigation) these incidents raised from 28 to 481. (Ser, 2016) Islamophobes Islamophobe is a non-muslim who knows more than they are supposed to know about islam. Islamophobes are people who believe that muslims who are believers of islam promote violence, terrorism, barbarism, crimes, persecution, women oppression, injustice. They perceive muslims as humans full of evil desires. They think that muslims are bound by the explanations and instructions of their prophet Muhammad and other pious ancestors. Muslims have fallacious concepts from inauthentic, unethical source. And they do not consider authentic references on same subject that are from their anti-islamic policies agendas. These islamophobes are totally against muslims without knowing anything except considering them terrorists. They associate wrong acts of few deviate muslims with whole religion of islam. While ignore wrongful acts done by followers of other religion (Nasr & Tair, 2016).

West Attacking Islam Acts of violence in Europe undertaken by muslims due to political reasons are less than 2 percent. Yet media narrates it as “Radical Islam” or “Radicalised Muslims” Muslims who deny drinking and music, practice traditional values are considered as violent class by west. Muslims saying “Inshallah” is considered as a red flag while non-muslims also say the same meaning “God Willing”. (Nomani, 2013) UK is also attacking muslims in many direct and indirect ways. Famous academies and public officials claim that growing beards, wearing hijab or getting close to those who believe in islam is termed as ‘potential terrorism’. (Hooper, 2015) American government has been undertaking surveillance of American muslims of muslim community leaders, mosques and muslim universities. They have started surveillance under heading of “Countering Violent Extremists”. This CVE also faced a lot criticism because it was making muslims a suspect community. Amrican Muslims are said that they cannot express their political radical views as what is radical considered terrorist. European muslims are not living a peaceful and safe life. Muslims of France live in tension and anxiety. They do not have a feeling of security.

Stop Blaming Muslims

Increasing Discriminatory Behavior Muslims are not treated same as other people in west. After 21th century they are treated differently. A recent statement of Trump that Muslims should not be allowed to enter America can show their haterd towards muslims. And this hatred results in discrimination. Discrimination, racism and prejudice are terms that can define behavior of non muslims towards muslims. A muslim is perceived as terrorist in west. Islam promotes violence than other faiths is the belief of almost every western. Muslims have been called offensive names, singled out by air ports. They are called out by law enforcement officials. Many muslims have been abused, threatened and physically attacked. Youth of muslim immigrants belonging from different ethical, linguistical and social norms when face this kind of illogical violent discrimination suffer from many emotional breakdowns. Women wearing headscarves is also very controversial in west. A headscarf is considered as oppression. Many countries oppose wearing headscarves of women. Non muslims’ attitude towards women with headscarves is more worse than other muslims. In some states of german teachers were banned to wear women headscarves in 2003 and this ban was lifted in 2015 thinking that it is incompatible with religious liberty. (Burke, 2016)

British Muslims Demographics

The muslim population in Britain increase manifolds in last years. It is almost 55%, 3.5 million of total Britain population of 6.4 million. In European Union muslims are the third largest population in Britain, after France and then Germany. (Kern, The Islamization of Britain in 2016, 2017) Following graph shows the division of muslim households in Britain Muslims’ Attitude Towards Britishers British muslim community is becoming a nation within a nation. Attitude of muslims towards britishers is also not so good. Many British muslims have sympathies with sucide bombers and terrorism. They do not even complain police if they see any of muslim community associating with terrorists. Some british muslims also avoid entering house of non muslims.(Kern, 2016)

Pressure On European Muslims Anti Muslim sentiment has been increasing rapidly from years. Islam has become the least favorable religion of all. Mosques are on target. Mosques on target Muslims do not feel secure in mosques and some of them have started avoiding entering mosques. 78 incidents of attacking mosques were seen this year. And this hatred boosted after incident of 9/11. Individuals on target Not only muslim institutions are targeted muslims themselves are not spared. Muslim individuals and communities have been facing brutalism. Cases of muslim murders can been seen easily and they aren't even provided justice as those of non muslims. During 2015 there were total 174 cases registered for violence against muslims. These included murder, physical assaults, threats to individuals and institutions, destroying property and vandalism, bombings and shootings and many other cases.

Professional Discrimination

As in every field of life muslims face biased behavior. Career opportunities for muslims are also limited in west. A muslim is less likely to have a job with same qualifications and experience as of non muslim. Acoording to a study muslims are 13% less likely to have a job even if they are fulfilling requirements.

Preventing Teachings of Islam

West is afraid of islam and that’s why they prevent islam for spreading. Public schools are not allowed to teach islam in syllabus. In some states many parents also protested again textbooks teaching islam. Even muslim madrasas is also on target of west. Uncomfortable Environment for Muslim Students Muslim students in west also face the same situation. The environment in which they have to study is full of hatred against them. They often are asked questions “Why are you Muslims Terrorists” and they feel helpless as majority of their classmates are against muslims. They suffer from anxiety and never feel comfortable in that environment. (Frequently Asked Questions About Islamophobia)

Extremism

Extremism in literal terms refers to the act of being extreme in any sense but specifically religion. Extremism is a complex phenomenon and is increasing day by day all over the world. Extremism is actually any act of religious faith extremism done to cause harm to people. Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity all are subjected to extremism but in our context we’re discussing Islamic extremism. Extremism is nowadays taken in religious or political sense. (Extremism, 2017)

Islamic extremism

These are certain acts done by Muslims thinking that this will earn them great reward on the Day of Judgment in the form of Jinnah. Although extremism is frowned upon, even forbidden by Islam. (Islamic Extremism) Extremist acts Extremists often display their extremism in the form of violent acts. These acts include terrorist attacks, threat of violence against public, forming of extremist groups and protesting against the government for the change of a law, as opposition to the actions taken by government or by simply protesting and creating violence. (PERLIGER, 2017) Extremism in Muslims Extremism in the Muslim community is usually in the firm of extremist or terrorist groups.

There are many groups these days including:

• ISIS
• Al-Qaida
• Daish
• Boko- haram

Results of Islamic extremism Islamic extremism has had very drastic effects on the Muslims worldwide. Every nation has started hating Muslim nations and they’re being all viewed as terrorists. Many countries refuse to give Muslims their VISA. Moreover, Islam has been made a global threat. Because of some specific violent communities entire muslim religion is being abused by whole world. Muslims living in west are no longer safe. They do not enjoy same liberty as non muslims are enjoying. Muslims living in west are not even provided same justice as those of non muslims. They do not have same career opportunities as those of non muslims. They have a sense of insecurity. Muslims are becoming socially isolated because of harsh behave of non muslims. This violent behavior towards muslims is just because of some extremist communities. This threat to muslim world should be stopped by abolishing these extremist communities. (The world's muslims, 2013)

Forces fueling Islamic wars Islamic terrorism wars are being motivated more and more each day and the agents for this motivation are:

• Citizenship issues
• Identity based frameworks
• Economic motivations
• Ideology
• Religious motivation (Richard C. Csaplar)

Citizenship issues Out of 57 Muslim countries only two countries accept fellow Muslim country immigrants. These two countries are Malaysia and turkey. To earn a decent livelihood many Muslims migrate to other neighboring countries but because of the phenomenon of islamophobia no country is willing to accept them, thus they turn to terrorist acts and violence. Identity based frameworks Muslims all over the world are viewed with an angle of hatred. No matter where a person belongs, where he works, how he behaves as long as he’s a Muslim he will be judged by the society for being a Muslim. Whether it is his fault or not whether he is even an extremist or not he will be judged on the name of Islam. Their appearance matters, whether it is their fault or not. In many cases we can see that non muslims are ignored on same fault while muslims face severe hatred and serious investigation.

Religious motivation Islam and hadith, the teachings of the prophet Mohammad and the teachings of the holy Quran are also subjected to racism. People have started considering them as a matter of gender inequality, racism, extremism etc. Muslims all over the world are oppressed because of following the teachings of Islam it’s not that they’re harming anybody or something it’s just the fact that people consider them bad without actually knowing them. These facts have created a sense of insecurity for Muslims and forced them to violence. Solution to these problems These problems related to islamophobia needs a permanent solution. This can be solved by Education. Education that is not biased. Even today world is educated but this education is biased. They are not providing education that promotes equality. Fair treatment is not practiced in world. And this discrimination is mostly with muslims. A muslim is perceived as aperson at fault. By providing fair education and promoting liberalism in such a way that if a person commits a wrongful act whole community should not be blamed, we can get rid of this phobia. Specific communities promoting extremism should be abolished . As they are playing vital role in spreading hatred against muslim world. These specific groups brutally kill innocent people in name of islam , hence making whole world against islam. These groups should be finished and the forces who facilitate these groups should also bring to eye. These Groups also get financial aid from some forces. Until these conspiracies are not stopped we cannot end this fear of islam. Muslims also need to be a bit liberal. Educating muslims can also be very helpful to overcome this serious problem.

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And all of it, the most important thing is the stereotypes about muslims should be eradicted from minds of non uslims that “All Muslims are Terrorists”.

Hidden away from everything and everyone, one can begin to know little more than the sense of neglect. This situation is seen throughout Frances Hodgson Burnett’s The Secret Garden, which brings up the idea of being alone prevents the feelings of being rejected by those around us. Neglected from birth, Mary engages her surroundings in a defensive manner to prevent rejection, as is shown through the bungalow in India, the empty rooms in Misselthwaite Manor, and the Secret Garden.

There are various instances when Mary uses her surroundings to shield herself from the neglect that she has endured since birth. Secluded from the outside world, the bungalow in India is all that Mary has known of for the first nine years of her life. One morning, when Mary awakes and sees someone other than her Ayah, she immediately becomes defensive and states, “‘Why did you come?’ she said to the strange woman. ‘I will not let you stay. Send my Ayah to me.’” (2) This line demonstrates Mary’s self-assertion, and how she refuses to let anyone in emotionally. She is also very quick to question and demand the woman in a very forceful tone, almost as if she is proclaiming a form of dominance. Considering Mary has become accustomed to isolation, when someone attempts to over step those boundaries, Mary is quick to deflect them to prevent those feelings she has faced her whole life. Furthermore, when the epidemic breaks out, Mary refuses to be pushed to the side once again, so she uses the nursery as a sense of security to avert rejection. “During the confusion and bewilderment of the second day Mary hid herself in the nursery and was forgotten by everyone.” (5) When something goes wrong, Mary’s first instinct is to hide and isolate herself. Nobody wanted her nor thought of her; by hiding in the nursery, it is Mary’s way protecting herself from thus continuing.

When Mary arrives at Misselthwaite Manor, she is quick to discover how similar it is to her home back in India. Once again confined to a room, “At first each day which passed by for Mary Lennox was exactly like the others. Every morning she awoke in her tapestried room; every morning she ate her breakfast in the nursery which had nothing amusing in it.” (49) Although the Manor is very large, Mary is apprehensive to abandon her normality. Even though the nursery is described as “nothing amusing”, Mary still stays, as she is afraid to leave that sense of security, a place where she is in control. However, when Martha suggests Mary should go to the library, Mary decides to explore the Manor instead as “She did not care very much about the library itself, because she had read very few books; but to hear of it brought back to her mind the hundred rooms with closed doors”. (61) This quote displays how Mary has only known seclusion for the entirety of her life, therefore, Mary is quick to dismiss the idea of the library. The author mentions how the rooms have “closed doors” which alludes to the idea that Mary prefers to be somewhere in the Manor where no one can find her, in a sense closing herself off from everyone else inside the Manor. As Mary begins to venture out more and more each day across the Manor, she soon discovers a garden closed off from the world.

This newfound knowledge of the Secret Garden appeases Mary, as she pictures it as a place where she could be alone and no one would be able to find her. When she first learns about the hidden key to the garden, she begins to think about what she could do inside. “If she liked it she could go into it every day and shut the door behind her, and she could make up some play of her own, because nobody would ever know where she was, but would think the door was still locked and the key buried in the earth.” (76) Seeing as Mary has spent so much time alone throughout the duration of her life, she becomes very interested in the idea of having a place to call her own. After many years of neglect, the feeling of being alone has become so familiar to her. In Mary’s eyes the idea of seclusion means that there is no one to reject you. Subsequently, when Mary makes her way into the garden, she views it as “being shut out of the world in some fairy place.” (101) It is here that we see Mary’s love of secrecy, a garden that she could call her own. It is referenced as being “some fairy place”, somewhere magical, out of the ordinary, almost as if it does not exist and no one can find her. After spending most of her days in the garden, Mary begins to take ownership of it, however she begins to contradict herself by saying, “Nobody wants it, nobody cares for it, nobody ever goes in it. They’re letting it die, all shut in by itself.” (114) The garden in a way symbolizes Mary as she has also been neglected for 10 years, shut in her own world. As soon as she feels that someone is going to take the garden away from her, she becomes defensive and thinks that if enough people find out about the garden, it will not be hers anymore.

Throughout the novel, Mary uses her surroundings to protect herself from being rejected. This defensive personality begins early on in the bungalow in India, where she has been sequestered from the outside world. Thus following her to the Manor, she becomes more and more intrigued to find places with closed doors where no one would think to look. This leads her to the Secret Garden, a place shut out from the rest of the world, hidden away from everything and everyone.

Work Cited

Burnett, Frances Hodgson, “The Secret Garden.” Ed. Robin Lawrie. Great Britain: Puffin Classics, 2015.