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As a kind of collective character onto itself, the Chorus in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex assumes multiple functions and qualities that, together, effectively blur the lines between the private and public spheres of the drama. Evidenced in the text by their roles as observers and instigators, as well as social commentators, and then in the film-version of the play by their strong physical omnipresence and claustrophobic-like staging, the members of the Chorus represent the proverbial “village” (or Thebes, the “city-state”), privileging not the sanctity of the self, but the interest of the greater good. Ultimately, by pointing to the religious-ritual roots of the drama, it is this village/city-state role that legitimates Oedipus’ eventual exile, casting it as a good sacrifice vital to the preservation of the community.

One of the ways in which the members of the Chorus in Oedipus Rex assert the supremacy of the community over the self, thereby embodying the notion of the “city-state,” is by acting as both attentive bystanders and active promoters of the events in the play. As the eyes, ears, and voice of the citizenry, the Chorus-as-city-state is a keen observing-body that main characters depend upon to summarize recent plot developments. For example, in Scene II, when Queen Iocast? first learns of the heated exchange between Oedipus and Creon, she demands of the Chorus, “First, tell me what has happened” (The Oedipus Cycle, 36). In a slightly less straightforward manner, the Chorus in Ode I also fulfills this important summarizing function by restating the prophetic dilemma at the center of the play’s emerging tragedy: “The Delphic stone of prophecies/Remembers ancient regicide/And a still bloody hand/That killer’s hour of flight has come” (25). Thus, the main players’ and audience’s reliance on the Chorus to recapitulate important events, reinforces the value of its by-stander function.

Although this position as “collective eyewitness” alone conveys a sense of the Chorus’ strong significance to the play, its members effectively expand the scope of their important “city-state” role by moving beyond mere spectatorship, to actively complicate and shape the course of the drama. For example, there are several moments in Oedipus Rex when the Chorus (or Choragos) makes observations that advance the progression of the tragic story. For example, in the beginning of the play, when Oedipus is wondering how to identify the murderer responsible for the plague befalling Thebes, the Chorus quickly suggests consulting Teiresias: “A lord clairvoyant to the lord Apollo/As we all know, is the skilled Teiresias/One might learn much about this from him/Oedipus” (15). Although Oedipus had already sent for Teiresias (i.e. prior to hearing these comments), it is through the expository vehicle of the Chorus’ remarks and first-ever mention, that the pivotal figure of the seer is introduced into the play.

However, the Chorus also provides insights that counsel or motivate characters to take preferable, wiser courses of action. For example, in Scene III, Oedipus learns that he is not the biological son of his father, King Polybus, but in fact an infant orphan discovered by a local Corinthian shepherd. When questioning the identity of the shepherd, demanding that these confusing matters finally be “made plain” (56), the Chorus answers Oedipus’ challenge: “I think the man he means is that same shepherd/You have already asked to see. Iocast? perhaps/Could tell you something” (56). Because the Chorus’ suggestion that Iocast? might have more information prompts the King to question his wife, the Chorus is here serving as the very impetus for character behavior, provoking actions whose consequences will prove central to the story’s climax and ultimate conclusion (i.e. the disclosure of back-story details). Furthermore, this response recapitulates (and reinforces) the significance of the Chorus’ observer status, framing it as somehow distinct and superior to the limited capabilities of the main characters. Because Oedipus cannot link past and current story points, or recall the directives he has just issued (“I think the man he means…You have already asked to see”), it is evident that his abilities to see and think clearly have been compromised, perhaps by the damaging confluence of his passions and pride. By contrast, the Chorus successfully makes the correlation, thus demonstrating the kind of preternatural intuition, or capacity for logical reasoning, King Oedipus lacks.

An additional element of the Chorus’ complex bystander/instigator role, highlighting the paramount importance of the community (and thus further substantiating this overall “city-state” representation), is the uncanny ability of the Chorus members to foreshadow future events. For example, in Scene III described above, Iocast? sees no positive benefit or purpose to Oedipus’ continuing an investigation into his birth. When her husband refuses to cease his inquiries, she leaves the stage in anger, prompting the Chorus to muse, “I fear this silence;/Something dreadful may come of it” (57). As confirmed by the falling action of the play, this statement is significantly prophetic, forecasting both the full disclosure of Oedipus’ true birth origins, and then the Queen’s subsequent suicide. Therefore, the Chorus’ foretelling capacity underlies the notion that even an individual’s most intimate revelations are understood first by the public, and are therefore matters of community, rather than personal, interest. In this way, the Chorus upholds the importance, the primacy, of the city-state over the individual. This essential hierarchical pitting is evident, also, in the social commentary the Chorus presents throughout the play

Another mode by which the Chorus in Oedipus Rex strengthens its representational role as the “city-state, reaffirming the preeminence of the public over the private, is by acting as the social consciousness of the play. Frequently, the Chorus comments upon the actions and decisions of the primary characters, cultivating an air of constant judgment or critical ubiquity. More than simply highlight the shortcomings of the main characters, however, the Chorus abstracts these faulty qualities, erasing their close association to the individual by placing them within a larger social context. In other words, the Chorus’ commentary reflects a concern not for how these flaws impact each character, but rather how they might affect the well-being of the city-state. For example, members of the Chorus reprove Oedipus for the pride (hubris) and anger he exhibits as elements of the tragic back-story unfold. In the first Scene, after Teiresias reveals that Oedipus is the very “pollution” (19) or contagion responsible for the plague on Thebes, Oedipus refuses to accept this truth, calling Teiresias a “decrepit fortune-teller” (21). Instead, he exalts his ability to have solved the Sphinx’s riddle--a task in which all other men had failed--thereby casting himself as the savior of Thebes. Therefore, his pride manifests itself not only in his disbelief of the gods (on whose behalf Teiresias speaks), but in the brazen celebration of his distinct, admirable qualities as grounds to invalidate Teiresias’ words. Oedipus’ anger surfaces when he accuses Teiresias of conspiring with Creon, suggesting that Teiresias’ claim is simply part of this grand plot. In response to this brash display, the Chorus comments, “We can not see that his words or yours/Have been spoken except in anger, Oedipus/And of anger we have no need. How can God’s/will/Be accomplished best? That is what most concerns us” (22). Therefore, as a kind of collective social consciousness, the Chorus does not meditate or focus on Oedipus’ pride and anger as they relate to him specifically, nor does it regard these emotions as objects of his sole possession. Rather, Oedipus’ hubris belongs to the public, and is of importance, worthy of the Chorus’ attention, precisely because it threatens the possible salvation of the afflicted city-state. By contextualizing personal drama within matters of broader social concern, the Choral Ode is another method by which the members of the Chorus act as social commentators that privilege the greater, communal interest.

Through the call-and-response interplay between its Strophe and Antistrophe, the Choral Ode stages the moral and theoretic debates at the center of Oedipus Rex. As a kind of solo-performance for the Chorus, the Odes are the most significant, eloquent, and compelling expression of the concerns and questions the Chorus wishes to consider. Therefore, they are the key channels through which the Chorus delivers its social commentary, allowing the members to speak of the actions of the main characters in ways that relate back not only to the communal good, but to the larger themes of the play. For example, Ode II presents the Chorus as once again contemplating the issue of pride, a quality Oedipus has (fatally) exhibited throughout the narrative. However, the Chorus seems to ponder the notion of pride on a far more abstract level, divorced from the specific character of the King. Specifically, in Antistrophe 2, the Chorus concludes:

Zeus, if indeed you are lord of all

Throned in light over night and day,

Mirror this in your endless mind:

Our masters call the oracle

Words on the wind, and the Delphic vision blind. (47)

Here, the Chorus worries that if the kind of pride that Oedipus (one of its “masters”) personifies ultimately trumps Fate (rendering, “the Delphic vision blind”), then perhaps gods do not rule or determine the course of mankind. In this case, life is not guided by some overseeing force, but is instead subject to the fickle whims and caprice of a fallible humanity. Therefore, in Ode II, the Chorus discusses pride not merely as a matter unique or confined to King Oedipus’ personal experience. Rather, it engages the problem of pride on a larger scale, as the basis for one of the play’s broader investigations: the debate of the power of man over the power of the gods. In this way, the Odes devalue the concept of the “self,” and reinforce the Chorus’ “city-state” representation. That the Odes punctuate and interrupt the “main” narrative of the drama, indicates how the structure of Oedipus Rex stresses the Chorus’ constant presence. This presence is further reinforced through the crowded, tight staging of the film-version of the play.

The Chorus’ omnipresence in Oedipus Rex is another narrative and theatrical vehicle by which the drama undermines the self and privileges the community (or city-state). As a moral reference point and source of critical commentary, the Chorus’ influence is pervasive. However, they are also a ubiquitous physical form. Chorus members consistently remain on the stage while other characters come and go. In this way, the Chorus implicates itself in the play’s setting, suggesting that it is the permanent backdrop against which the play is unfolding. The result is an oppressive, steady appearance whose claustrophobic-like effect is best captured in the film of the play. In the video version, the members of the Chorus inhabit the same stage as the primary characters, thus reducing the surface area of the theatrical arena, and manifesting the fundamental lack of division between the private and public spheres. They emulate the specific actions of the main players, physically recapitulating the idea these individuals, these members of royalty, are not entities in and of themselves, but simply subsumed members of the greater political corpus. For example, in Scene III of the play, Iocast? prays to Apollo, imploring him to cleanse Thebes and relieve the city from the tortures of plague. During this scene in the film, she is surrounded (overcrowded) by the members of the Chorus, who imitate her particular hand movements as she offers her sacrifice (the sweeping of her arms, the clasping of her hands, etc.). Therefore, not only do they echo Iocast?’s gestures, but, by virtue of their large number, the members of the Chorus seem to overpower and co-opt the Queen’s very character. Therefore, the Chorus removes the “personal” element from Iocast?’s moment of appeal, and renders the instance of prayer a necessary public event. In so doing, it exacts both an effacement, and a handicapping, of the self. Reinforcing the sense of claustrophobia evoked by the Chorus, its members’ crowding of the sage, their narrow, tight placement, reduces the “breathing room” that would afford main characters full expression of their personas. Therefore, the cumulative effect of the Chorus’ “cinematic” depiction is, once again, a general renunciation of the self that exalts the community, and thus legitimates the assertion that the Chorus embodies the “city-state” in Oedipus Rex.

Greek drama has its roots in ancient religious rituals that concern the cycles of nature, or the changing of the seasons. As an attempt to exert a kind of “human magic” upon the natural world, these rituals sought to correct a disruption in nature through a necessary sacrifice. As seen specifically with the ritual of the “scapegoat,” this sacrificial subject was a paragon within the village, the “best” the community could offer the gods. With the sacrifice of this idealized human form, society would be cleansed and concordance with nature restored.

Oedipus represents this very figure, the kind of man, the mythic tragic hero, whom Northrop Frye identified as superior in “kind” to other men. A sort of “scared monster,” he is a virtuous King who nonetheless embodies an evil so wicked, it has triggered a profound disturbance of the natural order. In Oedipus Rex, that evil has translated into the plague on Thebes, suggesting that the King holds the heart of the city, its sickness and possible salvation, within his own self.

In this way, Oedipus is the State. He and the people of Thebes are one in the same, a relationship Oedipus recognizes every time he insists the public (the “Chorus”) hear the latest developments of the unraveling story. Also, he seems to intuit the necessity of his own purification “sacrifice,” demanding that Creon cast him into exile at the end of the play.

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Therefore, by representing the Theban city-state, the Chorus foreshadows Oedipus’ ultimate expulsion, legitimating it as the only possible means for the restoration of peace and order. However, by pointing to the religious-ritual basis of the play, the Chorus also reinforces the inextricable relationship between Oedipus and the State, describing an important component of the democratic process, and introducing a theoretical debate (the question of the power of man vs. the State vs. the Gods) that will persist throughout The Oedipus Cycle.

Perhaps the greatest pleasure comes at the expense of others. Geoffrey Chaucer seems acutely aware of this, and has his Parson —the final tale-teller in The Canterbury Tales, though the Parson’s is not really a tale at all— include in his sermon on the seven deadly sins a denunciation of envy, the “worste synne that is” (X 487). Envy, according to the Parson, is manifested as “joye of oother mannes harm”, a definition which must give the reader pause: much of the enjoyment of reading The Canterbury Tales is derived from comical depictions of misery, particularly in the fabliau (and fabliau-incorporating) tales. Indeed, one of Chaucer’s most memorable scenes is the one in which the cuckolded carpenter lies unconscious and broken-armed after he has been outrageously duped and made the laughing stock of his town. The violent humour of this tale certainly accounts for its popularity among both readers and pilgrims, who “laughen at this nyce cas” (with the exception of the Reeve, at whose expense the tale is told —a fact which undoubtedly heightens our enjoyment; I 3855).

We might, therefore, be tempted to regard the Parson’s speech on envy as mere lighthearted imitation of a long-winded clergyman, out of touch with human nature and the enjoyments of everyday people. It is, however, the purpose of this essay to show how the Parson’s declamation against envy is a vital key to understanding The Canterbury Tales, and to demonstrate how this apparent contradiction has much to teach us about the nature of the pleasure we take in Chaucer’s varying (and frequently exaggerated) dramas.

The Parson’s reason for describing envy as the “worste synne” is rooted in the complimentary definitions of envy he provides: on one hand, envy is “joye in oother mannes harm” (X 488, 493); on the other, it is “sorwe of oother mannes goodnesse and of his prosperitee” (X 492). Envy, “sory of alle the bountees of [its] neighebore”, is therefore “agayns alle vertues and agayns alle goodnesses”, making it “properly lyk to the devel” (X 489, 488, 493). But, as I mentioned above, this also defines the enjoyment we find in “The Miller’s Tale”; likewise, we join the miller character in “The Reeve’s Tale” in his delight at the “sely clerkes [who] rennen up and doun”, chasing their runaway horse with “Keepe! Keepe! Stand! Stand! Jossa! Wanderere!” (I 4100-1). “They get hym nat so lyghtly, by my croun!” rejoices the miller, and we laugh with him —keenly aware (as he is not) that his own undoing is imminent (I 4099). By the time the miller’s wife and daughter have been had by the clerks, we are prepared to relish the ensuing fight:

And on the nose he smoot hym with his fest

Doun ran the blody streem upon his brest

And in the floor with nose and mouth tobroke

They walwe as doon two pigges in a poke.

And up they goon and doun agayn anon

Til that the millere sporned at a stoon[...] (I 4275-4280)

The scene is undeniably comical, and our amusement is heightened by the animal imagery; this enjoyment is further augmented when the Cook reminds us that the tale is told at the expense of one of the pilgrims present—“‘Ha, ha,’ quod he ‘for Cristes passioun./This millere hadde a sharpe conclusion” (I 4327-8). We, too, take enjoyment at misfortunes of the clerks and millers.

Here one might object that, while the misery of others forms a large part of the enjoyment we find in the fabliau-style tales, this principle of pleasure (as it may be called) does not apply universally. In “The Man of Law’s Tale”, for example, we do not take the same enjoyment in Cunstance’s suffering. Indeed, were this principle all-encompassing, we should expect to enjoy this tale a great deal more, since the unfortunate events endured by Cunstance are certainly far worse than those which befall the miller or carpenter. Cunstance is witness to a brutal massacre, twice exiled on a “shipe al steerelees”, and accused of murder (II 439). Yet one of the the only scenes in “The Man of Law’s Tale” which might be described as comical is the one in which the lying knight is suddenly slapped, presumably by the hand of God:

And in the meenewhiles

An hand hym smoot upon the nekke boon,

That doun he fil atones as a stoon,

And bothe hise eyen broste out of his face

In sighte of everybody in that place. (II 668-72)

A crucial difference between the knight’s unanticipated demise and the misfortunes of Cunstance is that the latter is not devastated by her hardships; she endures with patience, planting her faith firmly in divine providence:

But nathelees, she taketh in good entente

The wyl of Crist, and knelynge on the stronde

She seyde ‘Lord, ay welcome be thy sonde.’ (II 824-6)

Cunstance’s sufferings are neither vividly described nor sudden, as are those of the unfortunate knight, miller and carpenter. Of her second exile, the text tells us little more than that she “...fleteth in the see in peyne and wo/Fyve yeer and moore” (II 9001-2). I therefore believe that, rather than discounting the principle of pleasure at others’ pain, Cunstance’s case provides further proof for my argument: we are unable to enjoy her suffering because it is neither sudden nor devastating; moreover its dramatic effect is significantly diminished by her apparently unshakable faith. In this way we follow the Parson’s corollary definition of envy as “sorwe of oother mannes goodnesse”: the possibility of delight at Cunstance’s sufferings is precluded by their lack of palpable violence, and by the saintly equanimity with which she bears them.

Thus do we follow Satan is his displeasure at Cunstance’s perfection (II 126); we follow him in his desire to see her destroyed, confirming the Parson’s assertion that envy is “properly lyk to the devel”. Our craving for depictions of human suffering will only be satisfied by devastating changes in fate described in vivid physical detail; Cunstance’s years at sea do not satisfy, because they merely portray a distressing situation, coupled with relatively undramatic reactions on her part. Indeed, in “The Knight’s Tale”, Palamon and Arcite’s distress is amusing precisely because it seems melodramatic: the wailing and bickering of the imprisoned knights over the lady they have just seen from between the bars of their prison window is laughably foolish, for they are both detained indefinitely.

A second possible objection to the principle of pleasure which I here elaborate is the (immense) problem presented by the vicious and imposing anti-Semitism of “The Prioress’s Tale”. The modern reader is horrified at the vivid descriptions of sudden and irreversible human destruction. We receive amusement neither at the death of the innocent boy, “Kut unto [the] nekke boon”, nor at the “torment and shameful deeth” of the “cursed Jewes” (VII 659, 628, 685). The Prioress, however, almost certainly takes delight at the latter; moreover the popularity of similarly unsettling tales in the Middle Ages suggests a reception different from the one it inspires in the modern reader.

This objection is more difficult to square with my argument for amusement at violent suffering than that of Cunstance’s weary and interminable misfortune. In truth, this sudden and vivid violence pricks the reader’s conscience too much to be enjoyable, primarily because the modern reader will have become too sensitive to ignore the blatant racism which drives this tale, but also because the violence seems fierce and unjustified. Consequently, I will have to amend my principle somewhat.

“The Prioress’s Tale” may be set in direct opposition to “The Clerk’s Tale”, its climactic opposite: the violence which concludes the former is too extreme —any possible enjoyment is defeated by the modern conscience. In the latter, on the other hand, the cathartic destruction we rightly anticipates never comes: Walter does not receive the punishment we think due for emotionally torturing his wife and exiling his children for years and, at the tale’s end, we are left dangling, without a sense of conclusion.

This desire for violence in one place and repulsion by it in another exposes the conditions under which we as readers want to be entertained by depictions of others’ suffering. We may avoid the problem raised by “The Prioress’s Tale” by saying that depictions of vivid and sudden violence must also seem merited punishments in order to be entertaining: enjoyment must not be tainted by irritations of conscience. The reader is already aware of the sin of envy as the Parson describes in at the end of the Tales; yet the guilt at this pleasure may be overcome by stories which apportion suffering characters which seem deserving, thereby justifying the pain as due punishment, disguising enjoyment of pain as enjoyment of justice. Thus is the conscience sated and guilt discarded, allowing vicious pleasure at pain and suffering to be maintained.

We therefore remorselessly laugh at the ageing January (of “The Merchant’s Tale”), because he has wrought his own undoing: he has aspired beyond his station, taking an attractive young wife who (inevitably, it seems) cuckolds and outrageously lies to him. His embarrassment is funny to us, just as the embarrassment of the carpenter, injured both in body and in pride, is funny to his townspeople. The narrative surrounding the Summoner and Friar provides delightful entertainment, as their mutual deep-seated animosity gives way to battling tales which, however poorly conceived, antagonise and humiliate them before their fellow travellers. We laugh to imagine the enraged Summoner who,

...in his styropes hye stood.

Upon this Frere his herte was so wood,

That lyk an aspen leef he quook for ire. (III 1665-7)

Likewise do we laugh at the poorly-mannered Friar, who embarrasses himself before the assembly, receiving a rebuke from the Host: “‘A sire, ye sholde be hende/And curteys as a man of youre estaat” (III 1286-7).

The speech on envy given by Chaucer’s Parson therefore lends much to our self-understanding, as we consider a fundamental “joye” we take in the dramas of The Canterbury Tales. Yet by ultimately taking the role of conscience, Chaucer shows us how guilt channels this impulse into a desire for justice: we delight in misery on the condition that it does not seem to excessive; we expect punishment of others when we feel that we have the right to demand it, and we feel disappointed when anticipated suffering fails to meet our expectations (as in “The Clerk’s Tale”). And, after revealing to us this appetite for depictions of suffering, Chaucer lambastes us through the voice of his Parson, decrying the cruel delights which we share with his pilgrims.

Indeed, Chaucer’s irony even extends into his Retracion, in which he admonishes his readers, “that if ther be anythyng in it that liketh hem, that therof they thanken oure Lord Jhesu Crist, of whom procedeth al wit and al goodnesse” (X 1082). Of course we would never feel compelled to thank Christ for the distinctly anti-Christian pleasure taken at human pain, yet the apparent universality of its appeal suggests that it takes root somewhere deep in our psychology. Chaucer has led us into a corner, only to distance himself by turning against the delights which we have been enjoying; we are left exposed —like the pilgrims in his Prologue— to observations to which we would rather not be subjected.

Works Cited

Chaucer, Geoffrey, Robert Boenig, and Andrew Taylor. The Canterbury Tales. Peterborough,

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Ont.: Broadview, 2008. Print.

Despite the varying contexts with which they wrote their work, as well as the vastly different tone and content, both Chaucer in ‘The Merchants Tale’ and Webster through ‘The Duchess of Malfi’ explore the theme of forbidden love- or forbidden lust- and its attractions and implications. Whilst Chaucer’s humorous fabliau of adultery and grotesque miss-matches certainly contrasts with the twisted tale of status and gender imbalance in Webster’s tragedy, both writers appear to indicate in their respective texts the contradicting forces of the negative consequences of forbidden relationships, as well as their intense magnetism.

Chaucer, through the relationship between May and Damyan, explores the concept that a romance’s main attraction could be its forbidden nature. Damyan’s ‘love’ for May is most often described in the pain he experiences by not being with her, such as his ‘langwissheth for love’ and the attraction. Whilst May’s character seems to be predominantly motivated by lust- at the first opportunity she gets her and Damyan “had dressed/ in swich manere it may nat been expressed”, implying that their romance is driven by sexual impulse rather than romantic love. Chaucer’s poetry being a fabliaux, the characters are not fully realized and serve rather stock characters to serve the story, and by the point of Damyan’s love letter to May she had not been given any dialogue. This further implies that their attraction for each other does not extend beyond lust. Furthermore, the concept of May’s sole interest in Damyan being his status as forbidden and unattainable is stressed by their sexual engagement in the tree- Eve’s had the choice of all the fruit in the garden of Eden but sought out the fruit of the tree of knowledge because of its forbidden nature.

Similarly, in the Duchess of Malfi the Duchess’ love for Antonio originally appears to have been inspired by the containment of her sexual feelings by her brothers, the Cardinal and Ferdinand. The juxtaposition of the scene in which her brother’s declare her “lusty widow” and implore that she let “not youth, high promotion, eloquence…sway your high blood”, immediately followed by her claim that she will “wink and choose a husband” seem to imply that her initial attraction to Antonio emerges not because of his personal merits or qualities, but rather her magnetism to the forbidden. Her choice of Antonio for a partner only solidifies this argument. Marrying any man would anger her brother Ferdinand, who rallies against the idea of the Duchess remarrying despite the ideas of the time- a widow, who had far more power and authority than an unmarried woman, was encouraged to get married as soon as possibly as she was seen as a threat to the patriarchal order. However, her marriage to a man far below her status presents a more conventional forbidden romance than just her brothers telling her not to. Social mobility was a much-feared concept, and the Duchess’ disregard for social norms, represented by her telling Antonio to “raise yourself/… (her) hand to help you”, could signify a specific attraction that she cites in Antonio- his forbidden nature as someone below her in status.

That said, Webster portrays the Duchess’ love for Antonio as a far less amoral romance than that of May and Damyan’s in the Merchants tale. Despite the Duchess’ arguably stronger moral compass than the Cardinal and her sounder mental state than Ferdinand, she naturally stands as inferior to her brothers because of the patriarchal ideals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Her decision to marry Antonio is forbidden only because the will of the Duchess is suppressed by her brothers, and her marriage to Antonio in part seems to justify their romance as holy and moral, the Duchess asking “what can the Church force more?”. The presence of Cariola makes the marriage between the Duchess and Antonio legally and morally bound in the religious context of Webster’s time, and the Duchess’ defiance of what her brothers deem forbidden, rather than what the Church does, arguably puts the Duchess on the moral high ground and makes her seem a more sympathetic character.

This is a direct contrast to the forbidden nature of the romance between May and Damyan, in which the two directly violate the sanctity of the marriage bond by committing infidelity. Rather than exploring Damyan’s moral turmoil over pursuing a married woman, or engaging sympathy for May through her marriage to the old and lusty January, Chaucer presents both of the two as morally weak. This is highlighted by May and Damyan’s copulation taking place in “a tree… charged was with fruit”, a play on the image of the original sin beginning at the tree of knowledge, in the garden of Eden. Chaucer’s comparison of May to Eve in this way is fairly unforgiving, and her increasing calculation, motioning Damyan to climb the tree as she says to January that “(she) is no wenche” contributes to the idea that her pursuit of the forbidden Damyan is immoral and calculated.

Although both the Duchess and May’s pursuit of forbidden tastes results, initially, in satisfaction (emotionally or sexually), in some ways both Chaucer and Webster present manifestation of forbidden tastes as disturbing, rather than ‘sweet’. Ferdinand’s obsession with his sister’s sexual actions is increasingly disconcerting throughout the play, and the audience’s view of his character is heavily influenced by his craving of the forbidden. Whilst the Cardinal certainly shows distaste at the idea of the Duchess having sex (to his knowledge) outside marriage in Act II scene 5, he remains relatively impersonal and merely shows aversion to the idea of the Duchess ‘sleeping beneath her’, expressing contemptuously “shall our blood… be thus attained?”. In contrast, Ferdinand shows extreme, unfiltered rage at the idea, fuming “I (will) hew her to pieces”, and his anger at the man who impregnated his sister implies a jealousy that is very disturbing in a brother. His references to the Duchess’ “milk” and “blood” show an unsavory obsession with her body and his generally unpleasant behavior could be Webster’s way of conveying to the audience that that which is forbidden and immoral should not be ventured into.

Similarly, Chaucer presents January’s legal, but arguably transgressive, marriage to May as unsavory and grotesque. Although January’s marriage to May is not unethical in a religious sense- he ironically goes the extra mile to make sure that he is married before having sex with May so that he may have “leveful procreacioun”- and the context of the time rendered it not an uncommon situation for a far older man to marry a young woman, Chaucer nevertheless creates the image of January’s relationship with May as repulsive, if not humorous for the audience. Chaucer’s description of January as having a beard “lyk to the skin of a houndfish”, and “the slake skin aboute his nekke shaketh” is repellent, and juxtaposing his eagerness to have sex with May sitting “as stille as stoon” almost creates the idea that January had violated her, and that age gap between them makes his lust for her morally, if not religiously and legally, forbidden and illicit.

Furthermore, Webster and Chaucer further explore the idea that the exploration of the forbidden is destructive and only ends in failure by the consequences of those who sought it. Ferdinand’s mental health is visible throughout the play, with his threatening his sister with his “father’s poniard” after little aggravation, but his instability becomes unignorable once he learns that his sister was pregnant, his ravings leading the Cardinal to ask “Are you stark mad?”. The audience’s disgust for Ferdinand peaks at the death of the Duchess, a demand of Ferdinand that was influenced by the merging of hate, religious expectation and his sexually repressed feelings toward her, and the harm that the forbidden sexual feelings he had towards her are amplified in his almost immediate regret, stating “cover her face. Mine eyes dazzle. She died young”. Once the jealously and lust he once likely felt towards her is largely dispelled through her death, his judgement appears less clouded, and through this Webster implicitly challenges the notion that forbidden tastes are ‘the sweetest’; rather suggesting that they are the most deceptive and destructive, and perhaps outlining the consequences for not following the contemporary moral guidelines.

Chaucer’s portrayal of the pursuit of the forbidden is similar to Webster’s when it comes to the culmination of the relationship between May and January, in that January’s amoral indulgence in ‘forbidden tastes’ only ends in his own failure and cuckoldry. Whilst The Merchant’s Tale’s ending of deceit and a potential pregnancy is told lightly by the Merchant- in comparison to Webster’s response of killing both Ferdinand and the Duchess- the conclusion of the story would no doubt be disturbing to both the Merchant’s and Chaucer’s male audience. In the context of the late 14th century, and continuing for many centuries after, being a cuckold was one of the greatest shames a man could bare in society- it implied that he could not control his wife, a member of the fairer sex, and that he was not satisfactory at sexually satisfying her. Although January’s blindness (both physically and mentally) to May’s infidelity make him seem foolish and it wouldn’t be difficult for men of the time to distance themselves from him, his “palays hoom he hith (May) lad” implies that many men may think they are in charge, and are ‘leading the woman’ so to speak, when in fact that may be just what the women wants them to believe. May’s main motivation for her infidelity seems to be that she “preyseth nat his pleying worth a bene”, something which we can only assume is due at least partly to his old age. In presenting January’s cuckoldry as penance for his seeking of the ‘morally forbidden’ May, Chaucer is effectively presenting the pursuit of forbidden tastes as not worth the harm they cause, in the same way as Webster presents Ferdinand’s lust of his sister as his undoing.

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In conclusion, both Webster and Chaucer present the manifestation of multiple forbidden or immoral relationships, but the difference between the former and the latter’s take on them is significant. Almost all the romantic relationships explored in the Duchess of Malfi are in some way taboo or controversial, and they almost all end up in tragedy. Although by both a 17th century and a modern audience the Duchess may be looked at as reckless and “ambitious”, her willingness to challenge the men who have constrained her is admirable and most would agree she died a moral woman. In contrast, the character of May, also challenging society’s expectation of a chaste women (although arguably in not as commendably a way) is looked at with scorn by the audience, may not get to heaven and she will live her life in immorality, but she will likely relish in it- she has January's money and will get sexual satisfaction from Damyan. From this we can conclude that perhaps forbidden fruits are the sweetest, but that if one is to indulge in them, they must be prepared to deal with the possibly sour aftertaste.

John Webster explores the attraction of that which is forbidden in a plethora of ways. The nature of the attraction, and the powers that determine that which is forbidden vary throughout. However, the theme remains manifest in all the instances discussed in this essay. It is clear that a strong comparison can be drawn between ‘The Duchess of Malfi’ and John Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’ concerning the theme of attraction to the forbidden.

One of the first allusions to the theme of attraction to the condemned is that of Bosola discussing the corrupted and morally repulsive nature of Ferdinand and the Cardinal. He states that “He and his brother are like plum-trees that grow crooked over standing pools; they are rich, and o’erladen with fruit, but none but crows, pies, and caterpillars feed on them.” This demonstrates how he is aware that their actions within the court are utterly reprehensible and therefore arguably morally forbidden. However, later in his discourse he mentions how he “would hang on their ears like a horse-leech till I were full, and then drop off.” Despite being aware of the moral bankruptcy of the brothers, he is prepared to submit himself to an internally self-destructive moral conundrum in the pursuit of monetary and social patronage. He depends on this patronage to sustain himself as due to his previous criminalities, he has been forced to surrender part of his autonomy to the brothers. This notion of pandering in the court would’ve resonated especially with the Jacobean audience of the period. James I’s court was notoriously plagued with corruption; it was an institution abundant with those tasting the financially and socially sweet fruit that is political sycophancy. A key tenet of renaissance tragedies is the greater emphasis on an anthropocentric world view. Therefore, God and the divine becomes a lesser element within the plays. This change is also paralleled in the morals of renaissance plays as ethical paradigms shifted to that which is more self-serving as opposed to the teachings exemplified in religion. This explains the sycophancy within the court of James I, and also Webster’s cynical depiction of the courtiers in ‘The Duchess of Malfi’. The mention of “plum-trees… o’erladen with fruit” can be interpreted as an allusion to the forbidden fruit of Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’. Although in ‘Paradise Lost’ the tree in the Garden of Eden is presented as somewhat divine, it truly represents the transition into a postlapsarian era and the fall of man. Therefore, the crooked plum tree metaphor that Bosola talks of is similar in that it represents sin and sycophancy, and vices of mankind, akin to the tree in the Garden of Eden.

The marriage of the Duchess and Antonio is also a clear example of attraction to the forbidden. For Antonio, he is socially forbidden to marry the Duchess as he would be marrying above his status and overreaching. Although Antonio acts against the social construct that forbids their marriage, he simultaneously participates in it, as he upholds many social expectations of him, even minor things such as doffing his hat. In the Jacobean period, it was considered a gross violation of societal norms for nobility to marry those considered unworthy of their wedlock. Despite this, and the Duchess’ brother’s inevitable violent repercussions, Antonio goes ahead with the marriage anyway. Although his pursuit of this marriage is self-destructive, his demonstration of a lewd incitation of both lust and love for the Duchess with his lengthy speech in Act 1 Scene 2 shows that he is prepared to risk well-being in virtue of love. He revels in her rapture and the ecstasy within her speech; “For her discourse, it is so full of rapture, You only will begin then to be sorry when she doth end her speech”. This demonstrates how he considers the Duchess to be arguably the sweetest taste of all. Furthermore, the fact that she is forbidden in the social sphere to Antonio may be the cause of his desire and love for her. However, an alternative interpretation would be that it is false to draw a connection between the Duchess being socially forbidden and Antonio’s intense attraction towards her. There is nothing to explicitly suggest that the cause for his attraction to the Duchess is due to the fact that she is forbidden, although it can be entertained as a potential factor for his love.

The dynamic of the marriage can also be looked at from the perspective of the Duchess, as she too would have been forbidden to marry. Although the brothers did suggest marriage to a few potential suitors, including Bosola, it is clear through later dialogue that they wish for her to remain unmarried. This is primarily so that the financial wealth of the Duchess isn’t shared and drawn out from the family. Like Antonio, the Duchess would’ve been socially forbidden from marrying Antonio because of the general public disdain for marrying outside of one’s class. The Jacobean audience of the period would’ve shared this sentiment and would argue that policy should be upheld. It should be noted that the primary source of the play was ‘The Palace of Pleasure’, which is a text that would’ve argued for the condemnation of the Duchess’ marriage as she is marrying below her quality. Quality was determined by one’s position in society, and she is violating an accepted societal norm by ignoring Antonio’s quality. The statement of ‘forbidden tastes are the sweetest’ seems most applicable here, as it can be argued that part of the reason she pursues Antonio is because by doing so she realizes the ability to demonstrate her autonomy, and becomes an explorer of the unknown. She is a woman employing her freewill, which was largely uncommon, and therefore by pursuing Antonio she is combating patriarchal social confinements that attempt to bar her from doing so. The Duchess would’ve also been forbidden from marrying Antonio on a potentially legal and moral level. If her previous marriage was not annulled, then it would be incredibly improper for her to then marry again. The contemporary audience of the time would’ve been aware of this and therefore would be less sympathetic towards the Duchess. The audience wouldn’t have been afforded the same social mobility as a more modern audience would be, so this must be considered when contemplating how they would react. A present-day audience would be far more sympathetic to the Duchess than a contemporary Jacobean audience and therefore this must be considered when investigating Webster’s portrayal of characters. The Duchess’ actions are the catalyst for the tragedy within the play, linking to the theme also present in ‘Paradise Lost’, where straying women bring about final destruction of their societies. The Duchess and Eve are both not free from blame as although they acted with no malicious intent, they both brought downfall upon themselves and their loved ones through their disobedience to social structures. It can be argued that they were naive to believe they could challenge or overcome these structures.

A clear instance in the play that would relate to the statement would be that of the apricots in Act 2 Scene 1. That which is forbidden in the play usually can be categorized as either socially, morally, or legally forbidden. These events and occurrences aforementioned are intrinsically forbidden, however the apricots are forbidden consequentially. The act of eating an apricot is, of course, not forbidden in and of itself. However, for the Duchess, they are forbidden in relation to her because they expose her, and they also expose that which is forbidden. People of the renaissance era believed that pregnant women craved fresh fruit, and that apricots specifically would induce labor. Webster’s contemporary audience would’ve been acutely aware of this and therefore the mention of apricots would’ve immediately alerted them to the danger that the fruit possessed for the Duchess. There is a plethora of relations that can be drawn to ‘Paradise Lost’, relating to the forbidden fruit and the acts of women. In an aside, Bosola says “How greedily she eats them!”, demonstrating the Duchess’ intemperance. This relates to Paradise Lost as the intemperance of women (the Duchess and Eve) directly causes their downfall. Eve too cannot resist the temptation of the fruit and therefore succumbs to her intemperance and eats it. This directly leads to her and Adam’s downfall. There are also similarities in the perpetrator who seduces the woman of both texts, Bosola and Satan. They both present the fruit as something that should be eaten, and they both deceive the women into exposing themselves. Another relation can be drawn between Adam in Paradise Lost’ and Antonio; they are both men who suffer because of their partners succumbing to temptation. Furthermore, the apricots not only are forbidden as they will expose the Duchess, but what they expose (the pregnancy) is also forbidden too. The baby is the result of a potentially illegitimate marriage as the previous marriage of the Duchess is suggested to have not been annulled. This would’ve meant the Jacobean audience, who were more concerned about the holy sanctity of marriage and the legitimate procedure of the sacrament, would’ve had less sympathy towards the Duchess for marrying Antonio whilst not properly ending the marriage with her previous deceased husband (as aforementioned).

The statement ‘Forbidden tastes are the sweetest’ also relates to forbidden sexual desire. For example, Julia is a forbidden fruit for the Cardinal, as this adulterous relationship is forbidden both socially and morally, and furthermore the Cardinal’s position in the Church means that he should be abstaining from sexual relations anyway, making his sexual fraternizing even more shocking. This exposure of corruption within the Church parallels David Carnegie’s statement “the Church stripped of its disgusting roes be revealed as barbaric.” The actions of the Cardinal would’ve greatly shocked a renaissance audience; however, the severity and scandalous nature of his actions may be lost on a present-day audience. In an attempt to combat this, directors of recent renditions of ‘The Duchess of Malfi’, notably Kevin Spacey, have gone as far as to have the actors portray sex on stage in order to attempt to incite the same outrage as a Jacobean audience. The most prominent example of a forbidden relationship is the incestuous relationship that Ferdinand desires with the Duchess. He has an intense desire for her, but recognizes that it is socially and morally forbidden so he attempts to conceal it. Upon Bosola’s inquiry as to why Ferdinand wants him to survey the Duchess; “Do you not ask the reason; but be satisfied. I say I would not.” Ferdinand’s taboo desire arguably stems from his obsession with maintaining a purity of blood, and hence why he is so disapproving of the Duchess marrying anyone else. It can be alternatively argued that this isn’t the case as Ferdinand does suggest different suitors for the Duchess, however it seems clear that he doesn’t truly intend for these marriages to come to fruition and he suggests them simply to maintain the mask of not having incestuous desires for the Duchess. This desire motivates a lot of his actions throughout the play, however upon realizing that the Duchess had married Antonio and produced children with him, his motivation shifts. No longer is the forbidden sweet taste an incestuous relationship with the Duchess, but instead it has become murderous revenge. His revenge killing of the Duchess is also forbidden in moral, social, and legal fields, however the sating nature of revenge means that the sweetness of this forbidden action makes it impossible for Ferdinand to violate the Duchess in this way.

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To conclude, it is evident that there are multiple observable instances of forbidden tastes being the sweetest. Although there are instances in the play where forbidden tastes are shunned, such as Bosola’s protestations to torturing the Duchess, and his general shift in motivation towards the end of the play. However, it remains clear that sweetest tastes are forbidden, as all the main character’s primary motivations are forbidden. The Duchess and Antonio both desire each other which is socially forbidden as it’s a violation of marrying to one’s quality. The Cardinal desires to retain power and he does so through information from intelligencers and sycophants which is morally dubious. Ferdinand’s primary desire is to keep the Duchess from marrying so she can retain her economic wealth (which he ultimately can control), but also, he is motivated by an incestuous desire. Therefore, I would argue that it is clear that there is a clear theme of intense attraction to the forbidden. Webster’s reason for making this theme so prevalent was likely to comment upon the flaws of the society in which he existed and participated in. He would’ve observed the panderers of James I’s court, and the social confinement of women. His position as a social outcast would likely have inspired sympathy for women, so therefore he portrayed the Duchess as a moral center of the play and a victim of that which is socially forbidden. The social constriction of women limits her from actualizing her morally good desires; to love Antonio.

In Far from the Madding Crowd, Thomas Hardy uses nature to influence the actions of his shepherd and shepherdess protagonists, Bathsheba Everdene and Gabriel Oak, in two separate episodes involving rain storms. The conflict of Hardy’s Far from the Madding Crowd centers upon Bathsheba Everdene’s battle with and between her three suitors, Gabriel Oak, William Boldwood, and Francis Troy - and the battle involving the suitors themselves. Each of these four characters faces internal conflicts with his or her own desires, motives, and emotions, in addition to conflicts with each other. The plot follows Bathsheba’s relationship with each of these men and climaxes with a physical meeting of the three suitors, in which one is shot dead. Bathsheba and Gabriel seem to share the role of protagonist, but Gabriel is ultimately seen as the hero of the novel. The novel is set in the fictional area of Wessex, England in the equally fictional shire, Weatherbury. These places represent Hardy’s vision of the ideal rural setting. Though a time period is never specified, the reader assumes that the novel takes place during the late Victorian period, when Hardy lived and wrote. Hardy uses a third person omniscient narrator in order to provide the reader with insight into each character’s thoughts and situations. His characters are very in touch with nature, especially the main characters, who are a shepherd and shepherdess. Throughout the novel, nature acts as a driving force or a symbol of a character’s actions and choices. In Far from the Madding Crowd, Hardy uses parallel episodes that pertain to nature, such as fire in the hut and hayricks and rain on the farm and at the grave to compare and contrast character motives and development, as well as to accentuate the overall themes in the novel.

In both chapters mentioned, nature provides the outlet for certain character traits to be revealed. In Chapter XXXVII, the storm serves as an overarching symbol of Troy’s destructiveness in Bathsheba’s life. The physical storm, as well as the storm that Troy causes in Bathsheba, inspires a greater sense of protectiveness in the already devoted Gabriel. Additionally, these elements allow Bathsheba’s true feelings to shine through as she spontaneously confesses that she “…care[s] a little for [Gabriel’s] good opinion…” for “it would be dreadful that [he] should always think mistakenly of her”. Chapter XXXVII covers the scenario in which a great storm approaches Bathsheba’s farm, where uncovered hayricks lie. The storm awakens Bathsheba and she heads to the ricks to find Gabriel thatching. She asks Gabriel where her husband is, as he had promised “‘…that the stacks should be seen to…’” (p. 282). However, “‘…they are all neglected!” (p. 282). While Troy neglected his duties to Bathsheba and the farm while getting the farmhands drunk in the barn, Gabriel took on responsibilities that were not his and saved the ricks from the storm. In this chapter, Hardy emphasizes the beauty of the destructive storm. Though it could have destroyed all of Bathsheba’s harvest, and did destroy Boldwood’s, the majesty of the storm is most highly revered. Through narration, the reader sees that Gabriel, in contact with the love of his life, realizes that during the storm, “…love, life, everything human, seemed small and trifling in such close juxtaposition with an infuriated universe” (p. 284). Also under the influence of the majestic storm, Bathsheba “spoke more warmly to Gabriel that night than she had ever done whilst unmarried and free to speak as warmly as she chooses” (p. 288). This chapter shows Gabriel’s heart of gold in the midst of turmoil and Bathsheba’s true emotions for Gabriel begin to show through her stern front. Gabriel’s protectiveness is shown through his willingness to sacrifice his own safety for the protection of the hayricks, and, in turn, the protection of Bathsheba’s harvest’s profit. Hardy’s narrator contributes, mentioning that Gabriel speaks to Bathsheba “gently as a mother” (p. 287). During their work upon the ricks together, Bathsheba says, “‘Gabriel, you are kinder than I deserve!” (p. 285). Additionally, upon Bathsheba’s final departure from the ricks and Gabriel, she says “‘Thank you for your devotion, a thousand times, Gabriel! Good-night — I know you are doing your very best for me’” (p. 287). This quote, nearing the end of the chapter, shows the emerging relationship between Bathsheba and Gabriel that the nature of the disastrous storm inspired.

The parallel chapter, Chapter XLVI, emphasizes not Gabriel as a suitor, but Troy. Though the courting and marriage between Bathsheba and Troy has ended, this chapter serves to emphasize Troy’s true character, undeserving of Bathsheba, or any woman’s true devotion. The two storms serve to contrast each of these suitors and foreshadow Bathsheba’s final destination of marriage to Gabriel. Chapter XLVI opens at the Weatherbury Tower, beside the graveyard in which Fanny Robin is buried, and describes in detail the gurgoyles with water spouts. In Chapter XLVI, a storm comes through the graveyard where Fanny Robin is buried. A gurgoyle’s spout from the Weatherbury Tower funnels a stream of water onto Fanny’s grave where Troy had prepared a shrine for her. In a matter of time, the storm destroyed all of Troy’s work and left the grave in shambles. Troy awoke to find the storm’s destruction and was immediately dismayed. He abandoned the grave and carried on, “eluding grief by simply adjourning it” (p. 359). However, upon Bathsheba’s visit to Fanny’s grave and realization that Troy had erected the monument for Fanny, she asked that Gabriel assist her in refurbishing the grave, moving the gurgoyle spout, and replanting the flowers in honor of Fanny. It is later mentioned that around Fanny’s grave are “…flowers so carefully planted by Fanny’s repentant lover…” (p. 357). This statement makes apparent Troy’s reluctance of his actions. However, the reader’s empathy is quickly revoked after the rain storm destroys his handiwork and he abandons all efforts. Hardy emphasizes Bathsheba’s newfound compassion. Though emotionally destroyed by Troy’s storm, she finds in her heart the motivation to rebuild Fanny’s grave. Later it is evident that Bathsheba had hope of Troy’s return. Bathsheba’s motives are clear, but her actions show a growing compassion. In addition to showing true character in these chapters, Hardy uses the same natural elements to motivate changes in his characters throughout the novel. Hardy uses these two chapters to exemplify a growing change in Bathsheba. In Chapter XXXVII, the reader sees an inkling of respect for Gabriel’s opinion on behalf of Bathsheba. The incident with Gabriel on the ricks serves as a catalyst for the transformation of Bathsheba seen in Chapter XLVI. In Chapter XXXVII, Gabriel’s natural instinct to protect is drawn out by the approaching storm. He questions himself, “Was his life so valuable to him after all? What were his prospects that he should be so chary of running risk, when important and urgent labor could not be carried on with such risk? He resolved to stick to the stack” (p. 281). Gabriel willingly puts himself in harm’s way to protect Bathsheba’s harvest. This parallels to his willingness and attempts to protect Bathsheba from Troy, the storm. Though Gabriel doesn’t change much during the story, Hardy uses nature and the changes in Bathsheba to emphasize Gabriel’s loyalty, honesty, and dedication. In this chapter, it is also apparent that Bathsheba’s coldness towards Gabriel is melting. The reader sees physical touch between Bathsheba and Gabriel as she “…clutches him by the sleeve” and he is caught “…holding her arm” (p. 283). Here, as the intensity of the magnanimous storm is described, Hardy uses nature to draw Bathsheba and Gabriel into close contact. Originally, upon Gabriel’s proposal and then throughout the story, Bathsheba tends to push Gabriel away. However, during this storm, Bathsheba confesses her trust in Gabriel and draws both physically and emotionally closer to him. While Bathsheba’s changes in Chapter XXXVII pertain mostly to her relationship with Gabriel, Chapter XLVI relates those changes to her character as a whole. Bathsheba remains the same in that she continues to have a romantic interest in Troy, despite proof that he is untrustworthy and unworthy of her attention. Bathsheba does, however, change in her compassion. Throughout the story, the readers sees Bathsheba’s concern for Fanny after Fanny’s disappearance and then death. However, Chapter XLVI, physicalizes this concern as Bathsheba takes on the responsibility of refurbishing Fanny’s destroyed grave. When Troy’s work at Fanny’s grave was destroyed, Bathsheba, with the help of ever faithful Gabriel, replants the flowers, has the spout repaired, and cleans the gravestone. Bathsheba shows compassion and selflessness that she did not exhibit in the other sections of the novel. Additionally, in Chapter XLVI, the reader sees a lack of change in Troy. Though his love for Fanny is evident, his selfishness is shown even more strongly when he abandons her grave after his work was destroyed. However, Bathsheba’s compassion makes up for Troy’s lack of true caring. Troy, on the other hand, abandoned the grave and his previous efforts after seeing the destruction of the shrine. While Bathsheba’s growth is positive, Troy reverts back into selfishness. Changes in the characters, as well as their traits, lend to overarching themes and symbols within the novel as whole. Hardy uses nature to foreshadow events and thus nature acts as an element of fate.

As previously mentioned, storms, usually bringing destruction, tend to symbolize Troy. In both chapters analyzed, Troy is involved in actions transpiring during a storm. In Chapter XXXVII, the storm both symbolizes and foreshadows the destruction that Troy has and will have on Bathsheba’s personality and life. Chapter XLVI finds nature acting as fate and punishing Troy. During the storm on the hayricks, Troy is in the barn with the drunken farm hands whom he is responsible for. Troy was also responsible for protecting the ricks, but fails to do so. Essentially, his presence brought destruction to the farm, as the storm also did. Bathsheba’s affections towards Gabriel during the first storm also foreshadow her true feelings for him that become embodied in their marriage later on. While nature acted as both a symbol and element of foreshadowing in Chapter XXXVII, nature serves as an element of fate in Chapter XLVI. In Chapter XLVI, nature, by means of a rain storm, acts as fate punishing Troy for his wrongdoings to Bathsheba and in retrospect, Fanny Robin. The storm that comes after the burial of Fanny acts as a disciplinary by ruining Troy’s hard work on Fanny’s grave. It appears to be a sense of karma, to punish Troy for the way he manipulated Bathsheba. Bathsheba truly loved Troy, so in return for his wrongdoings, nature took from him his true love during natural birth and then nature destroyed the shrine he made for her. This incident seems to embody the idea that Troy himself is a destructive storm by yet again turning his actions into destruction. Nature, in the form of storms, ultimately shapes Troy and Bathsheba as characters, and in turn highlights the character traits of Gabriel.

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Within the novel, nature serves to emphasize character traits, catalyze actions, and symbolize thematic elements. While Chapters XXXVII and XLVI focus mostly on Bathsheba’s changes as a character, Chapter XXXVII highlights Gabriel’s character traits and Chapter XLVI characterizes Troy. Both chapters also symbolize Troy’s influence over Bathsheba’s life. The storms become symbolic of Troy’s mistakes and wrongdoings. Nature, these storms, in particular, contribute to making Hardy’s Far from the Madding Crowd a pastoral novel. Nature is central and heavily described, lending to the importance of natural semblance in the novel; especially concerning Bathsheba and her suitors. Hardy also uses the contrast between Gabriel and Troy to emphasize the idealization of rural life.

Works Cited

• Hardy, Thomas. Far from the Madding Crowd. New York: Bantam Dell, 1982. Print.

Population movements have been a constant feature of the evolution of human civilisation. But, in the last hundred years the world has witnessed many events responsible for global displacement of people on an unprecedented scale due to various factors. Migration and forced migration as global processes are today seen as a burning issue and an irreversible process. Usually term ‘migrants’ is used for the persons who have voluntarily migrated for better socio-economic prospects. However, for the forced migrants ‘refugee’ term is used. What causes people to flee a country and become refugees are different from choice based migration primarily for economic or social purposes.

Among the most common causes of refugee movements are: war, poverty, human rights violations, and mistreatment of minorities. These causes are most often found in combination with each other. Ethnic cleansing leads to war; human rights violations lead to poverty; etc. Usually their experiences of discrimination, threat to life, denial of opportunities for education or employment, and a lack of hope for the future forces them to leave their homeland. Now a day, issues of Refugees is a topic of hot debate across the world due cultural conflict, competition for resources and ultimately changing geo-political circumstances. At present, the increasing number of refugees in various part of the world indicates that something has gone seriously wrong and it is a big moral burden on civilised society across the world. South Asia has a major share in world’s refugee population and causes behind the displacement are political instability, armed conflict, ethnic and communal strife, lack of resources and other socio-political reasons. Like many other refugees in South Asia, Tibetan refugees are also product of turmoil in their native country i.e. Tibet.

Like any other social factors, displacement or forced migration also has its social consequences on the origin and host societies along with refugees themselves. The acts of the country of origin in a way constitute an injury to both the refugees and other host states. Refugees, thus represent a failure of the state system, a ‘problem’ to be solved. The existence of refugees and their moral claim to protection puts pressure on the basic infrastructure of the state, and modern India is also facing same dilemma since its independence. At the time of independence, due to partition a huge population of refugees in fluxed in India. India faced the same dilemma again in the next phase of exodus in 1960s, when the political turmoil in Tibet sparked off an unprecedented flow of Tibetan refugees in India. Thereafter during the Bangladesh Liberation War 1971, massacres in Bangladesh escalated an estimated 10 million refugees fled to India causing financial hardship, instability in Bangladesh and regional conflicts in the north-eastern states. Subsequently more than 60,000 Afghan refugees came to India in the years following the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The Indian government does not officially recognise them as refugees, but has allowed the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to operate a programme for them. In recent years, many Tamil refugees from Sri Lanka and Rohingya Muslims from Mayanmar have taken asylum in the India.

Some scholars have opinion that Indian government treated refugees on a case-by-case basis, and there was an absence of a clear-cut policy or refugee care regime in the government. The response of the Indian state towards the refugees and their needs has been a matter of calculation, discrimination, and discretion. The sphere of care, as a result, got segmented, became strategically ambiguous and there was an inherent paradox in the relation between care and power. India received the largest number of refugees since her decolonisation but treated them more as strategic pawns in the geopolitical games. The issue of the Tibetan refugees has always been an issue of contestation between India and Peoples Republic of China. In this article, I have confined my discussion on cultural identity issue among these Tibetan refugees and its changing dynamics with time.

Forced migration of a refugee damages them not only economically but socially also. When a refugee leaves his homeland to take shelter in a foreign land, his existing social world which was well tuned with his original environment gets tired off. In a new host location, he tries to reconstruct his social world with available resources and new environment.

Works Cited

1. Betts, A., & Collier, P. (2017). Refuge: Transforming a Broken Refugee System. Penguin Books.
2. Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, E. (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies. Oxford University Press.
3. Hathaway, J. C. (2015). The Rights of Refugees under International Law. Cambridge University Press.
4. Koser, K., & Martin, S. F. (Eds.). (2019). The Migration–Displacement Nexus: Patterns, Processes, and Policies. Edward Elgar Publishing.
5. Loescher, G., & Milner, J. (Eds.). (2020). The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path. Oxford University Press.
6. Malkki, L. H. (2015). The Need to Help: The Domestic Arts of International Humanitarianism. Duke University Press.
7. Porter, M. (2018). A History of the Modern Refugee. Cambridge University Press.
8. Schuster, L. (2016). Humanitarian Borderwork: The Ethics and Politics of Border Control. Routledge.
9. Shachar, A. (2017). The Shifting Border: Legal Cartographies of Migration and Mobility. Cambridge University Press.
10. Zetter, R. (2019). The Politics of Refugees: Intractable Problems and Impossible Solutions. Oxford University Press.

Table of contents

1. Ford Motor Company Strategy Background
2. Competitive Strategy of Ford Motor Company
3. Ford’s Core and Distinctive Competencies
4. Porter’s Five Forces in Relation to Ford’s International Growth Strategies
5. PESTEL Analysis of Ford
Political FactorEconomic factorsSocial FactorsTechnological FactorsEnvironmental FactorsLegal Factors
6. Ford’s Net Profit Margin (For Cost Minimization) and Working Capital (To cover Operations)
7. Analysis tool 2013 (millions of $) 2014 (millions of $) 2015 (millions of $)
8. Recommendations

Ford Motor Company Strategy Background

Ford Motor Company is a strategically revolutionary and technologically innovative automobile company founded in the year 1903 and quickly became the first of its kind to use distinctive techniques such as moving assembly lines and conveyor belts in manufacturing and human resource management practices by pricing products that can be bought by its workers with fair and standard wage. Model-T1 is the prime example of this innovation as it set an industry standard globally for manufacturing of cars. From expanding1 its portfolio by adding different price range of cars to shrinking its portfolio by selling most of its luxury brands i.e. Premier Automotive group1, Ford has always changed its strategy because of the highly volatile external environment in over the last century as well as in current times. Following vision and mission statement appropriately describe the company’s competencies and core objective.

The Vision Statement of Ford Motor Company- “People working together as a lean, global enterprise to make people’s lives better through automotive and mobility leadership.”

The Mission Statement of Ford Motor Company- “One team. One plan. One goal.”

Competitive Strategy of Ford Motor Company

Ford’s competitive strategy has significantly changed in the last 115 years. Ford’s core business has seen a shift from just producing vehicles using a cost-leadership strategy to ‘Smart Mobility’ wherein the company is not just limiting itself to its core business but extending its brand to be more like ‘technological’ companies rather than just a manufacturer of a finished product. Ford’s strategy is not only limited to be a cost-leader but has a variety in their portfolio of offerings such as Lincoln brands which are positioned at premium pricing. Their product offerings attract various types of customers on their affordability level. Ford’s modern competitive strategy is based on ‘One Ford Plan’1 which basically has four main components which include reverting Ford back to profitability which was hindered because of Great Recession during 2008-20093, meet customers demands by increasing the speed for development of prospective products, improve the financial position of the company and finally better teamwork . These changes were made to deal with the fast-changing global environment where Ford is not only competing with automobile giants but technology companies, ride-sharing application companies, Mass-transit systems, Metro systems (New rail systems in Indian metropolitan cities ) and local taxi-services.

Ford’s Core and Distinctive Competencies

Ford’s Core competency was their production techniques to achieve economies of scale to better their profits and their core efficiency to react to the influence of changing external environment. Their core competency since then has changed to suit the needs of a growing external environment. The current Core competency of Ford includes strong brand recognition, their relationship with rivals and ‘One Ford Plan’. Their distinctive competency is their intensive strategy of growth by shrinking their portfolio using different cost reduction techniques.

Porter’s Five Forces in Relation to Ford’s International Growth Strategies

These five forces will reflect the level of impact on Ford’s business by external factors in the automobile industry.

Competitive Rivalry: This force is the strongest external factor in case of Ford as automobile industry has strong competition and very low exits (high exit barriers) due to high investments3 and costs of the firms that are already in the automobile industry. Competitors such as GM, Toyota and will continue to innovate and differentiate to achieve market share which is the result of this force being too strong. As the rivalry intensifies, the goal is to achieve enough market share for the firm. Other potential rivals and partners include Uber, Ola, and other mobility services. Dynamic Shuttle in India will incur strong competition from Ola because of its strong presence and affordable fares and aggressive tactics.

Bargaining Power of Buyers: Ford has a strong cost leadership strategy where their product offerings are different for different regions, but the segment of low pricing is full of competitors.1 This gives a strong bargaining power to the consumers as the car is a big investment. This force is strong because switching costs are not high and plenty of substitutes such as Tata and Toyota are available in India. 1 Dynamic Shuttle’s pricing is set premium compared to Mass-transit, it may be a strong force in that matter as there is options available to buyers. To overcome this issue, Ford must conduct aggressive marketing of its offering in India and other potential markets when it launches.

Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Bargaining power of Ford’s supplier seems to be weak as Ford’s strategy is to be a cost leader which requires Ford’s suppliers to be exclusively making their ‘supplies’ or ‘parts’ for Ford. 3 For ‘Smart Mobility’ there will be significant change to suppliers bargaining power, it will be strong in this case as ‘Dynamic Shuttle’ will be truly successful where there is congestion in transportation system.

Threats of Substitutes: This force can be both moderate and strong for Ford as there are many substitutes for Ford cars such as ride-sharing applications, taxi, public transportation, Bicycle, etc. Companies such as General Motors, Toyota, and Tata for their mid-range cars and other luxury competitors for Ford’s luxury Lincoln brand.

The threat of new Entrants: There are several barriers to entry for new companies to enter the automobile industry such as achieving economies of scale requires high investments, acquiring brand recognition requires aggressive marketing and brand development. This force is weak for Ford, but it is still considered as a threat because there is potential of innovation from new automobile start-ups that could just enter the market on the opportunity of creating and offering something new in the market or just imitate it. Ola is imitation of Uber in India, but Uber adopts techniques for Indian markets from Ola’s decision such as acceptance of cash payments which is better suited for Indian population.

PESTEL Analysis of Ford

In this section, a PESTEL Analysis for Ford in relation to India as a potential environment for a test pilot of ‘Dynamic Shuttle’ is done because it is more appropriate to the subject matter in the case. Subject matter specifically in relation to the opportunities and threats in the Indian market and potential of application of success of this model in the markets such as China. Biggest threats in both China and India are the going to be local competitors. In Exhibit of the case Uber’s reach in India seems to be overshadowed by Ola’s penetration of the entire Indian market which is a threat to Ford’s “Dynamic Shuttle”.

Political Factor

Ford’s international strategy to move into Indian mobility is complimented by several favorable conditions such as political stability and increasing ease of doing business under PM Narendra Modi, whose BJP government party has majority seats in the parliament making the government more centralized. ‘One ford Plan’ will require a political environment where the government encourages technological innovation for more flexibility in the urban transportation system. Politics also plays an important part in fuel prices, inflation and access to credit to its population. These factors will influence Ford’s plan in the all markets it expects to enter.

Economic factors

Since the passing of recession in 2008-09, Ford has revamped their product offering by making them technologically updated and launched them in fewer platforms to focus on disposable income available with potential customers to provide them with best-value offer by reducing cost. Recession and global financial crisis has not yet threatened Ford’s future as it has bounced back with changes by either making changes to its products, reducing its pricing, shrinking its portfolio and by continuously adapting. But requires decentralisation in decision-making.

Social Factors

These factors are one of the most important attributes that define customer wants and preferences. As there is shift of requirements towards fuel efficiency, electric vehicles and affordability because fuel prices are rising, environmental concerns are becoming more relevant to customers. Ford must create a strong brand image in such areas by investing more on sustainable practices of both manufacturing and reverse logistics.

Technological Factors

Ford has always been at the forefront of the innovation of new technology or adapting new technology for complete mobility solutions and services. Technological innovations like driverless and electric cars will need more factors. Ford’s Capabilities on acquiring enough financial capabilities can be seen in their cost minimization techniques using economies of scale 7Rising trend in smart-phone use is one of those market directions that Ford needs focus on.

Environmental Factors

Climate Change, low-carbon foot prints and concerns for sustainability are the trends that Ford needs to focus on by offering fuel efficient, environmental friendly product offerings. Issues regarding natural environment are becoming more relevant due to high pollution levels in countries such as India and China. Ford’s “Dynamic Shuttle” should include an action plan for sustainability in India to reduce carbon footprints.

Legal Factors

Changing legal requirements are one of the biggest concerns in Asian countries as the need for environmental protection has risen so are the regulations but this is an opportunity for Ford to brand itself as eco-friendly and as a caring company. Better Intellectual property right laws will result in an opportunity for Ford to patent its new technology or innovation.

Ford’s Net Profit Margin (For Cost Minimization) and Working Capital (To cover Operations)

Ford’s revenues are mostly from automotive section of sales because their cost leadership strategy (generic strategy) which can be seen in the table below where there is an upward trend in net profit margins which means cost minimization has always been an essential component in their strategy even there was a dip in 2014 but they improved in 2015. This can become a problem if they keep focusing on cost minimization, they might be compromising on quality. 1 Ford needs to focus on their working capital which will help them in meeting their operating expenses for the future. Improving the Balance Sheet by strengthening their financial arm either by acquiring assets or reducing liabilities.

Analysis tool 2013 (millions of $) 2014 (millions of $) 2015 (millions of $)

Profit After tax 7,155 3186 7,373

Sales 149,917 144,077 149,558

Net profit margin (in %) 4.87 2.21 5.15

Above table was calculated from the Income Statement of Ford Provided in the Case.

Working Capital 2013 (millions of $) 2014 (millions of $) 2014 (millions of $)

Current Assets – Current Liabilities (in millions of $) (-) 33,122 (-)6,158 16,359

Above table was calculated from the Balance Sheet of Ford Provided in the Case.

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Recommendations

Ford’s position in the market has always been cost-leadership but they have adopted broad differentiation cost strategy to be different from their competitors. Following are some of the suggestions that Ford can do for a successful launch of “Dynamic Shuttle” in India,

• Change their portfolio again by reducing possible combinations of ordering options by focusing on upgrades customers usually get for their cars.
• My Analysis shows that Shuttlex seems like a better partner based on scalability.
• For the threat for rivals, Ford should act on their capabilities as they already have their manufacturing facilities in Chennai and Gujarat which are wholly owned subsidiary of the Ford Motor Company.
• Decentralisation in organisation structure by ethnocentric approach to business will help Ford in capturing the Indian market. The Ethnocentric approaches will help in putting techniques that are locally fruitful.
• A joint venture with an Indian start-up whose capabilities match with Ford must be selected as partner for “Dynamic Shuttle”. Capabilities such as research about the Indian market because of Indian firm’s experience will help in reducing costs on research and development. But the different issues will arrive from organisation structure compatibility of two organisations. Ford’s organisation structure seems to be rigid because of a legacy image attached to the company’s management where decision making is centralised.
• Improve Balance Sheet by acquiring more assets.

Foreign investment refers to the investments made by the residents of a country in the financial assets and production process of another country. For example – an investor from USA invests in the equity stock of HDFC Bank (an Indian Bank).

FII don’t directly invest in the company through buying of shares. They usually go through the secondary route. Foreign investments in the country can take the form of investments in listed companies (i.e., FII investments), investments in listed or unlisted companies other than through stock exchanges. It may be through FDI or private equity/foreign venture capital investment way, investments through American Depository Receipts/Global Depository Receipts (ADR/GDR), or investments by non-resident Indians (NRIs) and Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) in various forms.

Economies like India, which supply comparatively higher growth than the developed economies, have gained favour among investors as engaging investment destinations for foreign institutional investors (FIIs). Investors are optimistic on India and sentiments are favourable following government’s announcement of a series of reform measures in recent months. According to Ernst & Young’s

(EYs) international Capital Confidence barometer (CCB) - Technology report, India ranks third among the foremost engaging investment destinations for technology transactions within the world. India is the third largest start-up base within the world with over 4,750 technology start-ups, and regarding one,400 new start-ups being supported in 2016, per a report by Nasscom.

FII’s net investments in Indian equities and debt have touched all record highs in the past financial year, backed by expectations of an economic recovery, falling interest rates and improving earnings outlook. FIIs net investments in Indian equities and debt stood at US$ 7.46 billion in 2016-17 (upto April 14, 2017). Cumulative value of investments by FIIs during April 2000-December 2016 stood at US$ 183.69 billion.

India-focused offshore funds and exchange traded funds (ETFs) witnessed net inflows of $565 million in November and helped the overall tally to reach nearly $6.5 billion in 2017.

Equity mutual funds recorded the 17th straight month of net inflows with record Rs 20,362 crore (US$ 3.18 billion) inflows in August 2017 on account of rally in Indian stock markets. Equity funds received an inflow of Rs 2.86 trillion (US$44.6 billion) from November 2016 to October 2017.

The total market capitalization (M-cap) of all the companies listed on Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) rose to a record high level of Rs 146 trillion (US$ 2.27 trillion) on November 19, 2017 backed by positive sentiment in the broader market.

India has emerged as one of the strongest performers in terms of deals related to mergers and acquisitions (M&A). M&A activity in India more than doubled year-on-year to reach US$ 61.26 billion in 2016-17.

During 2017, India witnessed record private equity investments worth US$ 24.4 billion. Private equity (PE) investments in the logistics industry grew at 9 per cent to US$ 501.71 million during 2016-17 and are expected to grow at 8.6 per cent annually from 2015-2020 on the back of increased opportunities resulting from low entry barriers and Goods and Services Tax (GST).

There are certain myths / beliefs about FIIs which are not necessarily true

Myth -1: - FIIs do not invest in unlisted entities. They participate only through stock exchanges

Myth -2: - FIIs cannot invest at the time of IPO (initial public offering). Foreign investors investing in initial allotment of share through IPO or FPO or Private Issue are categorized as FDIs

Truth on 1 and 2: - As per Section 15 (1) (a) of the SEBI FII Regulations, 1995, a Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) could invest in the securities in the primary and secondary markets including shares, debentures and warrants of companies unlisted, listed or to be listed on a recognized stock exchange in India. In fact, FIIs are very active in the over the counter (OTC) markets and in the IPO market in India. However, subsequent to SEBI (FPI – foreign portfolio investors) regulations, FIIs are allowed to invest only in listed or to-be listed entities and only through stock exchanges.

Myth 3: - FDI has more direct involvement in technology, management etc. while FIIs are interested in capital gain and momentary price differences. Generally FDI involves a long term interest in the management of an enterprise and includes reinvestment of profits. In contrast, FIIs do not generally influence the management of the enterprise.

Truth on 3: - To some extant this notion is true and is emphasized in policy documents. For instance, consolidated FDI Policy of Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) states that “foreign Direct Investment, as distinguished from portfolio investment (FII), has the connotation of establishing a“lasting interest” in an enterprise that is resident in an economy other than that of the investor”. However, of late, there have been occasions where FIIs come together to influence decisions in companies where they hold shares. The difference between FDI and FII, except for the fact that the latter necessarily has to be an institution, while FDI can come from an individual also, rather lies in the registration or approval process and to some extent in the individual investment limits or lock-in conditions specified for each category.

The regulations for foreign investment in India have been framed by the Reserve Bank of India in terms of Sections 6 and 47 of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 and notified vide Notification No. FEMA 20/ 2000-RB dated 3rd May 2000 viz. Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or issue of Security by a person Resident outside India) Regulations 2000, as amended from time to time. In line with the said regulations, since 2003, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has been registering FIIs and monitoring investments made by them through the portfolio investment route under the SEBI (FII) regulations 1995. SEBI acts as the nodal point in the registration of FIIs. Subsequent to SEBI (FPI) Regulations, 2014 depositories register and monitor the activities of the FIIs and SEBI will continue to be the regulator for the same.

Despite the fact that Urdu is the national dialect of Pakistan, however, English is the dialect which is formally utilized as a part of all private and in addition government authorities. In Pakistan, English language aptitudes are viewed as accommodating for understudies in finding a high-class work. In proficient life, basic language is clearly English. This research is being done to talk that a child ought to be presented to the second language that is English in critical period or not? And which type of schools are suitable for the language proficiency of a child. Furthermore, we also tried to find out that which language should be the medium of education at the regional level. In light of confirmation assembled through questionnaire and meetings with instructors, the examination finds that early English-medium approach seems counterproductive as most understudies exhibit poor English language capacity. In nations like Pakistan where English isn't the primary language, many guardians and groups trust their kids will get a head-begin in instruction by going 'straight for English' and bypassing the home language.

The inspiration driving this is to center towards their financial prudence and enhance the vocation prospects of their more youthful ages. For young students, utilizing the primary language in early instruction prompts a superior comprehension of the content of the educational module and to a more inspirational state of mind towards school. Utilization of the students' home language in school likewise decreases the burden on instructors, particularly where the educator talks the nearby language well, which is the situation in most of the country schools in multilingual settings. Research has demonstrated that in learning circumstances where both the educator and the student are non-local clients of the language of direction, the instructor battles as much as the students, especially toward the begin of schooling. But when teaching begins in the educators' and students' home language, the experience is more natural and friendly for all. Therefore, the educator can be more inventive and creative in planning materials and methodologies, promoting enhanced learning results.

There is a famous saying by Jack Edwards that “What is a nation without a mother tongue?” Mother tongue is the identity of the nation. Only those nations emerge as a prosperous nation in the history who preferred their own language over any other language as the world. It is important for the individual to get fluency in mother tongue before learning any other language because an individual thinks in his mother tongue and then translate his thoughts into any other language.

Many theorists are of the opinion that the mother tongue is the better medium for instructions rather than English or any other language. Max von Sydow said about the importance of mother tongue that “I think English is a fantastic, rich and musical language, but of course your mother tongue is the more important for an actor”. Keeping the importance of mother tongue for an individual as well as nation building the best medium of instruction for the early schooling of an individual is child’s mother tongue. The stronger the children’s mother tongue, the easier it is for them to learn new languages. Children who have a solid foundation in their mother tongue, develop better literacy skills also in other languages that they learn. When parents and other important adults have time to discuss and read in the child’s mother tongue and thus help expand the child’s vocabulary, the child will be better prepared when kindergarten or school starts and can easily learn new languages.

Children’s knowledge and skills transfer over languages. Skills learned in the mother tongue will transfer to the other languages learned in school, as long as all languages are supported. Despite too many advantages of mother tongue as the medium of instruction, the government of Pakistan is failed to establish the mother tongue-based educational policy in the country. Because of too much professional advantages of English language, parents prefer English-medium schools over Urdu-medium schools because English is used more in the professional life of an individual and that is the main reason why English is considered as the key to prosperity and intelligence of an individual is also judged on the scale of its English skill. An individual who is more fluent in English language but has low technical skills is considered more intelligent than the one who is not very good at English but has good technical skills. For the following reasons, parents are more interested in teaching English to their child rather than Urdu or mother tongue.

In our research, we shall highlight the medium of education in Pakistan. But our major concerned is about that what students think about the language-in-education policy of Pakistan and what should be the medium of education in Pakistan, whether it should be English, Urdu or any other regional language. For the building of future language-in-policy, we took the valuable advice of the teachers of various colleges. Keeping in view of the students and teachers of various colleges we will conclude that what should be the medium of education in Pakistan so that we should prosper in the field of education. Following are the major questions of our research that we asked from the students on a social media platform.

Which language do you consider more important in the professional life of an Individual?

Is it better to teach English in the elementary grades?

Study finds that early English-medium appears to be counter-productive as most of the students don’t get a grip in English as well as in Urdu. Do you support this argument?

Linguistic expert supports the idea that best medium for the early schooling of a child is the mother tongue of the child. Do you agree with this argument?

According to you should Punjabi be the medium of instruction in primary schools of Punjab like Sindhi and Pashto are the medium of instruction in the primary schools of respective provinces?

What is the most appropriate age to teach a foreign language to students?

Are you satisfied with the performance of low fees so-called English medium schools?

Which type of schools is best for language proficiency of student?

What should be the medium of education at the regional level?

How many languages should be taught to the students?

Language Policy of Pakistan

Pakistan is a multilingual country with six major and over fifty-nine small languages. Urdu is the national language of Pakistan which is the mother tongue of 7.57 percent of the entire population and the official language of Pakistan is English. Many of the people in rural areas are not even able to understand English but still, the most used language in the offices of Pakistan is English. The most spoken language is Punjabi having 44.15 speakers.

However, the importance of regional languages is always compromised because the languages of the domains of power-government, corporate sector, media, education etc. are English and Urdu. The policy of Pakistan has favored these two languages at the expense of others. It has also resulted in English become a symbol of the upper class, sophistication, and power. The people who speak their regional language let say an individual who is speaking Punjabi is considered illiterate. This is any one of the reasons that parents prefer to teach English to their children as the English are considered as the key to prosperity, power, and success.

The Context and Methodology

The main purpose of our research is to find the answer of our question that whether a child should learn his mother tongue first then exposed to any other language or a child should learn his mother tongue and any other foreign language simultaneously. For this purpose, we conducted our research in 7 low fee schools of Karachi (Haq Foundation School, CSS Grammar School, Aligarh Schooling System, Usman Public School, City Grammar School, AIMS School, IMAM Montessori School) and one Government of Bahawalpur (Govt. Islamia girls school). We created the Google form consisting of some questions regarding the research and ask students of NUST and other universities including NED-UET Karachi, IST, COMSATS and few other renowned universities of Pakistan to fill the form. We also asked from the parents of the students that which type of school they prefer. Our schooling system is divided into four categories Private elite English medium schools, Private non-elite English medium school, low paid English medium school and Government Urdu medium school. According to the survey most of the students are currently studying in the low fees private schools because of their economical fee structure. That is why we conducted our research in the low fees schools and took interview from the faculty of that schools. A total of 4 school principals, participated in the interview and almost 150 students gave their opinion about the medium of education via the Google form.

Students are the pioneer of future and pillars of the nation. You can never hope for the successful country if there are no educated people and policy for better education. That is why it is most important that in which medium they wanted to study. For this purpose, we asked the students of different universities to fill the Google form which consists of some questions regarding our research and this form is filled by the students of many universities including NUST and NED.

When students are asked to give their opinion about the most important language in the professional life of an individual, a vast majority of students opted English because English is the official language of Pakistan and English is used in the corporate and government sectors more than any other language. However, some of the students from Sindh also replied that Sindhi is used more than Urdu and even more than English in the Government offices that is why the Sindhi language also plays a vital role in the professional life of an individual especially when the individual belongs to Sindh. The following graph illustrates the responses of the students.

When we asked the students that which is the most optimum age at which a child should be exposed to English. Most of the students replied that at kindergarten level students should learn Urdu only then at primary level students should be exposed to English and should learn English and Urdu simultaneously.

According to linguistic experts, English-medium education appears to be counter-productive as most of the students do not get a grip in English as well in their mother tongue when we asked from the students that if they agree with this argument we get the mix responses. Some of the students said that it is up to the intelligence of student whether he can handle the two languages at the same time or not, but most of the students support this argument.

According to the research, most of the students of Pakistan are enrolled in low fees English medium school. When we asked the students whether they are satisfied with the performance of these type schools. Students replied that they are so-called English medium school where the teacher even do not know English and English teachers method of teaching language is not up to the mark. They asked the students to memorize the question rather than speaking English.

When we ask the students that which type of schools are best for language proficiency of students. The students from different universities are of the opinion although the private elite English medium schools are expensive the teaching methodology of these type of schools are better than any other schools in Pakistan.

The most important question of our research is that what should be the medium of education for the early schooling of a child. When we asked from the students, most of the students replied in favor of the English and almost same amount of the students replied in favor of Urdu and comparatively low amount of students replied in the favor of the regional language of that language

This is also an important question that how many languages should be taught to a child during his early schooling. The following graph illustrates the responses of the students. When we asked the students that what strategy should be adopted for the language proficiency of the students. Most of the students replied that best strategy for the language proficiency of an individual is that first student should get proficiency in his mother tongue(L1) then should be exposed to other languages(L2) which are also known as Additive Bilingualism”.

The role of the teacher represents a fundamental difference in the Language Futures approach. Whilst the teacher may be an expert linguist with a deep understanding of how languages are learned, and therefore the strategies to be used to support this, in the Language Futures classroom he or she will not be the expert in all or even any of the languages chosen by the students. When we asked school principals that why they do not teach regional language to the students (like Sindhi in Sindh) most of the school principals said that there are no competent teachers available to us who are able to teach the regional language to the students and it is extremely difficult for the schools to find such teachers. When we asked the principals of some private nonelite English medium school about the performance of their school, one of the school principal (IMAM Montessori School) of such school said;

But the reality is totally opposite to this argument. Study finds out that the students of private non- elite English medium schools and low paid English medium school are not good at English as well as in their mother tongues because never learns to speak English or expresses himself in English. The answers he writes in English are copied or memorized from the book. When we asked about that what is the most optimum time at which the schools should start teaching English to the students, principal of CSS Grammar School said that ;

But the principal of Adamjee Government Science College (Dr. Naseem Haider) provided us with a totally opposite answer to the same question;

When we asked that what should be the medium of instructions in the schools. The school principal of Government Islamia College replied that;

The following is a brief account of the opinions of the principals and teachers of different colleges and the rationale given for the choices they make about language policy;

Students can learn mother tongue in their home.

Mother's tongue is applicable only in family and friend gatherings.

English has more uses in professional life than English and Urdu

Some of the teachers supported the idea that lectures in institutions should be delivered in Urdu because easily understand Urdu.

It is better to teach English during early schooling of the students.

The most suitable medium of education is English.

It is difficult to find the teachers of the regional languages.

It is better to teach English and Urdu to the students.

It is not good to teach many languages to the students because of its lead to linguistic confusion.

Due to extensive increase in demand of English due to its uses in professional life of professionals and academic life of an individual students are mostly inclined towards the English language and of the opinion that students should learn English and Urdu simultaneously, 36% are of the opinion that Urdu should be the medium of education while almost 37% students are of the opinion that English will be better medium of instruction because English is more applicable in practical life. Almost all of the scientific books whether of engineering, medical or social sciences are mostly written in English. That is why most students are in the favor of teaching English from the elementary grades of the student (almost 85% of the students who responded to our google forms). 3 out of 4 principals who participated in the interview are also in favor of teaching English from early stages of schooling but they are not satisfied with the teaching methodology followed by the schools.

Mostly English medium schools are not teaching English in the appropriate way and that is one of the reasons that most of the students from such type of school are not very fluent in English because the main focus of such schools is memorizing the course rather than teaching English to the students. But according to our opinion teaching English and Urdu simultaneously will only create linguistic confusions in the future. Because the student will not be able to get proficiency in either of the ones because it is the proven fact that an individual thinks only in one language. So it will be better that student should get proficiency in one language and later introduce to English or any other language. But teaching Urdu only is not the solution too because most of the syllabus books are not available in Urdu so this will also trouble the school if they are not familiar with English. If we wanted Urdu medium education system in our society then it is necessary that all the books should be translated into Urdu. So in this circumstance teaching, both English and Urdu will be better. However, teaching the methodology of low free private English medium type of schools should be corrected.

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Debates and such activities should be held in the school from the early classes in which students should able to speak as much as possible because most of the students use mother language in homes and in their daily routines and speaking English is not in their practice. This is one of the reasons that most of the students are not very fluent in English. But I am not in the favor of teaching regional language such as Sindhi, Balochi etc because this will create ethnic divisions in the society because it will be very difficult to manage this for any type of school. Students belonging to different ethnicity wanted to learn its language and not the other. That is why it is better than regional languages should be limited to the home and English and Urdu should be the medium of instruction in any institute.

Table of contents

1. Abstract
2. Introduction
A Brief Historical BackgroundRelations After the End of the Cold WarDevelopments in the Post Cold War EraChallenges Ahead: China FactorTajikistan's importance to Russia
3. Conclusion
4. References

Abstract

For Russia, Tajikistan is one of the most strategically located country as far as its security is concerned. Also, when it borders with china and in close proximity to one of the most war-torn regions of the world, it became significant for Russia to re-shape it’s foreign policy after the end of cold war. In this light, this paper offers an explanation for contemporary Russian policy toward Tajikistan. It analyses the relations between the two states in the former USSR, Russia and Tajikistan during the years from 1991 to present with an emphasis on Russian Foreign policy and interests. The paper also emphasised the need of Tajikistan for Russia in present world order where China is taking assertive shape in the region and the threat from terrorism is at its core. Finally, it discusses the need and prospects of cooperation between Russia and Tajikistan.

Introduction

Tajikistan is a small country which is located at what might be called as the geophysical centre of the Asian landmass. It is bordered by Afghanistan in the south, by China’s Xinjiang Province in the east, and by “Soviet Central Asia,” to the west and north. Tajikistan lies at the conjecture of several religions, languages, cultures. Tajikistan is culturally far removed from Russia. The predominant native language is Tajik, which is a variant of Farsi, has cultural ties connecting it more directly to the Middle East and West Asia than to Moscow and Europe.

Since the fall of Soviet Union in 1991, Tajikistan has experienced economic dislocations, civil war, and post-war political, economic, and social decay. In a small span of time Tajikistan went from the status of a middle-income country to become one of the poorest countries in the world. During this same period, Russia maintained a substantial, continuous, and expensive military and diplomatic presence in Tajikistan. Tajikistan shares no common border with Russia. There is little in Tajikistan which is commercially valuable to Russia. Then, what accounts for Russia’s continuing presence in Tajikistan? Why Tajikistan has always been one of the closest friends of Russia and a pro-Russian Country throughout the soviet and the post-cold war era? These substantial questions shall be resolved in the further sections.

A Brief Historical Background

For the last several hundred years political control of the territories of Central Asia was divided among three competing powers: the Persian Safavis, the various Uzbek Khanates, and the Indian Mughal Dynasty. Later, as the British influence on Central Asia increased from the South, Russian territorial expansion into Central Asia increased from the north. Russia took possession of much of the Uzbek lands and the British occupied the previous position of the Indian Moghuls. The area to the east of Tajikistan, or Eastern Turkestan, came under the control of the Qing Dynasty in 1759. As Russian territorial expansion into Central Asia increased from the north, British expansion increased from the south. China recaptured Eastern Turkestan and renamed the area “New Territories”, or Xinjiang. After the collapse of the Tsarist empire, the Russians re-embarked to Central Asia to spread communist rule. In 1918 the northernmost areas of Central Asia were included within the boundaries of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. After communist political consolidation in Central Asia, a land reform took place in Central Asia in 1924 which established new administrative boundaries. The Tajik Autonomous area was included initially in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic. After five years Tajikistan became a Soviet Socialist Republic.

Relations After the End of the Cold War

After the August 1991 coup attempt in Moscow, Central Asian countries reoriented quickly and assumed separate and independent rule. This was a decisive moment for Russia’s foreign policymakers. Should Russia’s influence in the post-Soviet world be identified with the boundaries of the old USSR or should new spheres of influence be drawn? Russian political officials rested with the former. Russia emphasized that the first priority of Russian diplomacy will be the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States, an organization they perceived as to let Russia to continue influencing Eurasia generally, but particularly in Central Asia where the states were seen as being dependent upon Russia economically and militarily.

Russian agreed to maintain Russian peacekeeping forces for Tajikistan in April 1993. With the unfolding of Tajikistan war, the Russian maintained balancing goals of peacekeeping and stability with Russian’s long-term interest in the sensitive mountains passes of Central Asia. Russia publicly represented that it could achieve this by keeping neutrality throughout the war. However, opposition members in Tajikistan did not regard the Russian influence as neutral. In the wake of the political fallout, the Russian government began giving more support to the idea of maintaining military operations in Tajikistan. Russia’s military presence gradually turned the country into “Russian protectorate” (Lena Jonson). Appeals were also made for intervention from the United Nations. The UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT) was established in Dushanbe with military observers detached to key regions throughout the country. The UN, the Russian military, and many international donor organizations began applying diplomatic pressure to encourage the newly established Tajikistan government to develop a program of national reconciliation. Under the auspices of the UN, negotiations were begun between the government and opposition representatives. The negotiations eventually came to be known as the “Inter-Tajik” talks. In December 1996 the leaders signed a cease-fire agreement. In June 1997 the leaders signed a peace accord that set a time frame for reduction in warfighting capacities, reintegration, and political reconciliation. Confidence building measures were designed to lead in increments toward the surrender of arms by Tajikistan’s hard-to-regiment irregular militias. The 1997 Peace Accord included provisions relating to the parliamentary elections of 2000 and the subsequent dissolution of the National Reconciliation Council (NRC) as a milestone of political reintegration. In June 2000 the UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT) withdrew from Tajikistan after a six-year stay.

Developments in the Post Cold War Era

Like the other Central Asian republics, Tajikistan joined the CIS, which was created in December 1991. After the Soviet Union’s collapse, Russian troops were withdrawn from all the Central Asian states apart from Tajikistan. Presidents Dmitry Medvedev of Russia and Emomali Rakhmonov of Tajikistan agreed on August 29 to further their cooperation in the fields of gas and hydropower leading to the construction of Sangtudinskaya and Rogunsky hydroelectric plant. Russia also agreed to develop and explore natural gas deposits in Tajikistan. Strengthened bilateral cooperation in the military and military-technical spheres was also agreed. Russia maintained a military presence there in the form of the 201st Motorized Rifle Division and the Border Troops. Russians also held important positions in the Dushanbe government itself.

One of the stated foreign policy goals of the Russia was the protection of Russian minority in Tajikistan. It was dealt with the conclusion of a dual-citizenship agreement between the two countries in 1995. Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991, Tajikistan had no army of its own. Administratively, the republic was part of the Soviet Union's Turkestan Military District, which was abolished in June 1992. By the end of the Soviet era, the old military system, had begun to break down, and draft evasion became a common occurrence in Tajikistan.

Border security was a key part of Russia's continued military role in Tajikistan. In June 1992, the formerly Soviet border guards stationed in Tajikistan came under the direct authority of Russia. The presidents of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Russia came to Dushanbe in July 2009 for bilateral and multilateral meetings to discuss future military cooperation between Tajikistan and Russia. Russia was exploring weapons exports to Tajikistan at market prices, and training Tajik military staff on a commercial basis.

Russia’s economic influence in Tajikistan is felt most strongly through labor migration. As many as one million of Tajikistan's population of 7 million work as migrant laborers in Russia, sending back over $2.5 billion in remittances. Many Tajiks nevertheless remain in Russia in the hope of finding new work. Although Tajiks working in Russia are officially required to obtain work permits, the fact that travel between the two countries is visa-free made it difficult to enforce this requirement.

Russia continues to be the dominant external economic partner of Tajikistan. From 2005 to 2009, Russia invested $971 million in Tajikistan. In 2008 it accounted for 75 percent of total foreign direct investment (FDI), or $325 million 28 percent more than in 2007. According to the Government of Tajikistan, in the first half of 2009 Russia invested $39 million -- more than any other country. Russia's low investment compared to previous years was due to the global financial crisis. Nevertheless, Russia remained Tajikistan's largest trading partner, with 24.7 percent of Tajikistan's overall trade. Russia also made major investments in energy, construction, mining, communication, transportation, and other sectors.

Challenges Ahead: China Factor

Russia considered spillover from events in Afghanistan and Pakistan as the main threat. Russia is concerned about rising instability both from extremists originating in the south and also the ongoing disputes on water, borders and other issues between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Apart from the regional skirmishes in central Asia, Chinese increasing assertive role is sending strong signals to Moscow about increasing influence of China in the region. Central Asia, being a “pivot to Asia” stands at a vulnerable front and has threats from extremist insurgencies as well as China’s “Debt Trap Diplomacy”. As Russia is heavily engaged in the region economically, any disruptions due to Chinese economic role will lay spillover effect on Russian economy and its political interests in the region. Geo-politically as well, Russia cannot let any other power to gain strategic influence in its near abroad, which is apprehended due to Chinese Clandestine moves through it’s Belt and Road Initiative. Russia is particularly insecure about Tajikistan as it shares borders with China.

Tajikistan's importance to Russia

Despite the realistic orientation of Russia’s foreign policy, Russia’s commitment to Tajikistan should not have narrow interest. Rather in terms of broader calculation that includes Russian political psychology, long-term strategic considerations, and a series of short-term tactical requirements. Tajikistan is a country whose geostrategic significance is out of proportion to its size, the size of its population, or the size of its economy. Tajikistan is a country whose future will define new diplomatic and strategic relationships that will reach well beyond the country’s borders. It is apparent from this description that the Russia is not likely to abandon the leverage it gains from its position in Tajikistan, the “pivot of Asia”. For Russia to now abandon its outpost in Asia would be equivalent to abandoning a claim to a sphere of influence in Asia. This is the reason that Russia is in Tajikistan.

Conclusion

To conclude, it can be said that Russia’s commitment to Tajikistan has psychological, tactical and strategic dimensions. The paper explored these dimensions, showing how they reinforce one another in the context of Russia’s growing concern with “grey area” security threats.

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Tajikistan is a regionally and geopolitically important country where principled, clear-sighted and constructive engagement is necessary and appropriate. Relations with Tajikistan have been strongly coloured by the large security de?cit of the country and its lack of resources to counter hard and soft security threats arising from the perforated borders with neighbouring countries, especially Afghanistan. Russia is the security provider par excellence which is evidenced by the recent establishment on its territory of a Russian military base.

References

• Gleason, Gregory (2001). “Why Russia in Tajikistan?” Comparative Strategy, Vol; 20, No.1 77-89
• Nygren, Bertil (2007). “The Rebuilding of Greater Russia: Putin’s foreign policy towards the CIS Countries, Routledge, Taylor and Francis group
• Globalsecurity.org/Russia-tajikistanrelations