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1. Article No-1
2. Article N0-2
3. Article No-3
4. Article No-4
5. Article No-5

Globalization is the process of greater interdependence among countries and their citizens. It consists of increased integration of product and resource market across nations via trade, immigration and foreign investment. Via international flows of goods and services, of people and of investment such as equipment, factories stocks and bonds. It also includes noneconomic elements such as cultural and the environment. Globalization refers to the shift toward a more integrated and interdependent world economy. Organizations must compete on a global basis

Falling trade barriers make it easier to sell globally. Consumers’ tastes and preferences are converging on some global norm. Firms promote the trend by offering the same basic products worldwide. Technology advancement especially in telecommunication and transportation make it easier for globalization of market, products and production.

Organizations have many ways to become involved internationally, some of these are, outsourcing, and exporting, licensing and foreign direct investment. Outsourcing refers to the sourcing of goods and services from location around the global to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quantity of factors of production. By doing this, the firm can reduce their cost of production, Promote efficiency in production, become more competitive in the international marketplace. Exporting means the goods and services are produced in a country in which particular country achieved absolute advantage and transfer those goods to another country for sale. Licensing is enabling a company to produce and market a product in another country. Franchising is one kind of licensing .Direct investing is another kind of globalization. In this case an organization invests in another country because of cheap labor and cheap resources. For example Japanese company invests in Malaysia for cheap labor and raw materials.

This Success is determined by global HR strategies. The basic management function of planning, controlling, organizing and leading is same whether the company is operated domestically or internationally. It is challenging to operate business in multiple countries. The international business management refers businesses are operated more than one countries. International human-resource management addresses the added complexity of managing diverse people globally. The human recourses management needs to consider a lot of key factor before globalize their organization. These includes the economic environment(economic development, infrastructure, resource And product market, per capita income, exchange rate, economic condition),legal-political(political risk, Government takeover, Tariffs, quotas, taxes, terrorism, political instability, laws and regulation), Sociocultural (social values, beliefs, language, religion).Mangers must adapt with the cultures in which countries they are operating their business, they must understand the ways to provide proper leadership, decision making, motivation, and control vary in different cultures.

Article No-1

The article “Impact of Globalization on Human Resource Management” by Oyeyemi Kayode,is related to” The global environment” by Richard L Daft.

According to the article, the increasing prevalence of globalization is driven by a number of factors, including shortage of talent in developing countries, global market forces, technological forces, global cost forces. The pace of globalization is increasing continuously in terms of markets for goods and services, investment and business opportunities within one or more organizations. This transformation caused by globalization affects all the department in an organization in which human resource management is not left out in this transformation crusade as it has obligation to move along with the changing demands of the globalization process. The impact of the workforce on Human Resource Management either locally or internationally also it revealed the various factors driving globalization in the workforce and the issues and challenges that confront the Human Resource Management in the global markets.

There is tremendous growth potential in the global markets which resulted in intensified foreign competition in local markets which forces the small-and-medium-sized companies to upgrade their operations and even consider expanding internationally.There has also been growth in demand which necessitates the development of a global network of manufacturing bases and markets, when the markets are global, the production - planning task of the manager becomes difficult on one hand and allows more efficient utilization of resources on the others. Product diversity has increased as products have grown and global low-cost manufacturing locations have emerged. Global Cost Forces product and process conformance quality, delivery reliability and All these realizations placed access to skilled workers and quality suppliers high on the priority list for firms competing on quality. A number of high technology industries have experienced dramatic growth in the capital intensity of production facilities.

As Daft describes in “The Global Environment”, a borderless world, means organizations want to sell their products globally, as there is a growing demand for their products in other countries. Also if they build their production plant in developing countries, they can take advantage of low cost labor which make them more competitive in global market .For example, Japanese made product will be more expensive than Malaysian made product, so Japanese product cannot compete with Malaysian product. This factor leads a Japanese company to build firm to some low cost country to take the advantage of factor endowment. Also in some developing countries there is demand for some goods but due to the lack of technological advancement they cannot produce the desired goods and service in that case global organization build their firm in those particular countries. The raw materials is also a factor in some cases, if the raw materials have to import from other country which increases the production cost, so the firm cannot compete with other firm which does not need to import the raw materials. In some cases consumer demand for a particular brand, this also lead a product to be globalized. So if we consider the article, the writer describes the same thing as Daft describe about Globalization.

As the writer describe about human resource and corporate culture in his article, the national boundaries as multinational or global enterprise improve global competitiveness and empower employees for global corporate cultural differences and invest in human management issues that are particular for the global enterprise. The common corporate culture is crucial for the global organization. The organization cannot act the same way around the globe when the corporate culture is different. On the other hand, the development of the common corporate culture is difficult. The nations are different. The HR role is to set up the international team, which develops the unified corporate culture and corporate values. It is not easy to introduce the global mobility, but the global organization needs global managers, who are able to run different a strong global Human Resources. Managers must be trained in global policies, and they have to be managed from managers into the global world of the organization.

If we consider, “The Global Environment” by Daft, regarding human resource management and corporate culture, he describe the management is the crucial human capital to operate the business globally. Because they need to understand global strategy as they are not operating the business in their home country. They also need to understand the culture of that particular country. Because different country has their own culture. For example, If an American manager try to adapt his own culture in Malaysia, his Malaysian employee will take it differently. So the global manager should be trained accordingly. Now if we consider the article, it is as same as Daft said.

Article N0-2

The article “Asian management research needs more self-confidence: reflection on Hofstede and beyond” by Tony Fang, is related to” The global environment” by Richard L Daft.

According to Tony, Hofstede masterful capacity to elaborate the complex phenomenon of culture in simple and measurable terms explains his enormous popularity. This article is about the reflection and perception of the writer, Tony Fang to Hofstede’s article (2007) in APJM’s 25th anniversary issue. Tony thinks that Hofstede paradigm with its focus on cultural differences can hardly capture today’s new cross-cultural management environment characterized by change and paradox in borderless and wireless cultural learning, knowledge transfer and synchronized information sharing( globalization). He argues that there is a need to move beyond the Hofstede paradigm if today’s borderless and wireless cross-cultural management has a chance to be understood and theorized. Tony discussed the concept of Ying Yang and its implications for understanding cultural dynamics in the age of globalization. He also emphasized that Asian management researchers need to learn from the West but at the same time need to have self-confidence and courage in using indigenous knowledge to make contributions to theory building with global relevance.

The Hofstede (2007) article aims to explore “general characteristics of Asian management as opposed to management elsewhere, and what the study of Asian management and its cultural origins mean for the emerging Asian multinationals and for the state of the art in management research worldwide in the 21st century” the article discussed 3 major themes, first is the continuity of management problems over time, second is differences in management problems across countries and last what is Asian management. Hofstede is consistent with his earlier writings about culture and it provides a nutshell of the Hofstede paradigm which is based on at least 6 assumptions. The six assumptions are including the complex phenomenon of culture can be tackled through implication and stereotyping, nation-state or nationality is adopted as the basic unit of analysis, culture and management skills are viewed as country-specific phenomena, cultures can be analyzed in terms of four or five cultural dimensions along which each national culture is given a fixed indexing, emphasizes that value determines and prevails over behavior and not the other way around and finally the last one is culture is stable over time because values are difficult to change over time.

I think Tony article is relating to “The global environment” by Daft. This is because “The global environment” by Daft has mentioned about socio cultural value dimension by Hofstede, the book make me know Hofstede for the first time and I wish to explore more about Hofstede theory and finally i found this interesting article. Ya, I agree with Tony that argue with the Hofstede nearly article (2007)which Hofstede is consistent with his earlier writing about culture to be apply in today globalization world. I think that Hofstede paradigm is hardly capturing today’s new cross-cultural management environment. On the other hand, some changes and decision is only suitable to be used in West but not Asian. Some changes have to make to produce a better management skill. Tony introduced the concept Yin Yang to be used or apply in Asian management.

According to Tony, Asian philosophies and changing Asian institutional and cultural contexts can serve as an important source of inspiration for cross-cultural theory building. Asian thought and management is fundamentally characterized by “both-and” dialectical thinking and change mentality. Whereas in the west issues tend towards classification on a bipolar “either-or “basis, this is seldom the case in Asian cultures. In Asian, when asked whether they are feminine or masculine, whether they are collectivistic or individualistic, and whether they are reserved or expressive, for example, Asians would often to be confused because they believe they can be both depending on situation, context and time.

Yin Yang is arguably the best –known symbol in East Asia. Yin represent female energy and Yang represent male energy. Yin Yang cannot survive without each other, and they complement each other, depend on each other at different points in time, all in the process of ceaseless change and transformation. The Yin Yang philosophy empowers Asians to perceive culture essentially as a dialectical and changing environment full of paradoxical value and behavioral orientations. This dialectic ,holistic, and changing perspective of culture inspired from Yin Yang differs philosophically from the static and bipolarized vision of culture advocated by the Hofstede paradigm. Drawing on Yin Yang and dialectical thinking and using “+ve” and “-ve” to symbolize paradoxical values, respectively, Fang ( 2005-2006) proposes that if there exist “ +ve” in a national culture, there must coexist “-ve” in the same culture depending on situation, context and time. A balanced culture embraces both Yin and Yang ; a balanced culture is both feminine and masculine ,both long-term and short-term, both individualistic and collectivistic, both monochromic and polychromic ,depending on situation ,context and time.

Lastly, I have to say that I think changes and improvement should be made from time to time, especially in the globalization era now. We should not resists on one theory ( Hofstede paradigm) and ignore other theory or concept. Hofstede maintains that his research “ does not represent a finished theory” and he encourages us to continue our “exploration” to “serve the understanding of cultural differences and the improvement of intercultural communication and cooperation, which the world will increasingly and forever need,” these encouraging comments should be taken as an impetus for us to catch up and move on.

Article No-3

Globalization of Human Resource Management: A Cross-cultural Perspective for the Public Sector – by Dr Pan Suk Kim,

According to the article, international environments are changing rapidly. Foreign competitive and the need to trade more effectively overseas have forced most corporations and government to become increasingly culturally sensitive and globally minded. Global competitive conditions are presently affected by a rapid internationalization of service businesses, much of it, again, driven by the emergence of new boundary-crossing technologies.

Globalization implies accepting that cultural diversity in management composition and management style contributes to the competitive advantage of the global agency. Global human resource management provides an organized framework for developing and managing people who are comfortable with the strategic and operational paradoxes embedded in global organizations and who are capable of managing cultural diversity.

To survive in the 21st century, agencies must adapt a global mindset and transform leadership to be globally competitive. Global leaders must learn not only customs, courtesies, and protocols of their counterparts from other countries; they must also understand the national culture and mindsets of the peoples. According to Hofstede, culture refers to the collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.

Negotiation is a process in which two or more entities discuss common, as well as conflicting interests in order to reach an agreement of mutual benefit. Fisher addresses five considerations for analyzing cross-cultural negotiations which are the players and the situations, styles of decision making, national character, cross-cultural noise, and interpreter and translators. The negotiator should discover what the foreign negotiator expects and then provide a tension-free environment that encourages cooperation and problem-solving. Next negotiator can find ways to influence a foreign agency’s decision by analyzing its organizational culture and structuring arguments to fit within established guidelines. Factors such as gesture, personal proximity, and office surrounding may unintentionally interfere with communication. There are limitations in translating certain ideas, concept, meaning, and nuance. Thus, a negotiator will try to communicate a concept or idea that simply does not exist in the counterpart’s culture.

Equipping executives with a global mindset is one of the key strategic tasks facing human resource management in global organizations. The successful training of future leaders of global organizations requires a radical transformation of thinking about the basics premises of human resource development techniques. Traditional training and development approaches fall short of what is required for globalization. Albert Bandura asserts that we learn through the interaction of four elements: attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives including the motivation processes.

Globalization demands new ways of thinking. Transformation, multiple interpretation, and alternative patterning become the basis for understanding and constructing meanings in cross-cultural encounter. Therefore, a new teaching methods and a new version of curriculum should be developed in the era of globalization. The globalization public administration school curriculum would be organized in a way that is different from any other traditional school currently in operation. The key characteristics of a globalized public administration school should include culture exposure, comparative, problem-centered, flexibility in timing, multilingual, team building, faculty development and exchange, and textbook and case study development.

Now if we consider the article and Daft`s “The Global Environment” regarding human resources management it is similar because Daft mention that, organization must trained their management when they operate their business in other country, managing cross culturally. For example a European manager works in his own country in an individual manner but when working China have to be collectivism manner.

Article No-4

The article “Globalisation and Its Influence on Strategic Human Resource

Management, Competitive Advantage and Organisational Success” by Deepika Faugoo , is related to the “The global environment” by Richard L Daft.

Globalization describes that world trade, culture and technologies have become rapidly integrated. The phenomena of globalization are the change from cyber revolution to trade liberalization, worldwide homogenization of consumer product and services and export oriented growth. Economic, political, cultural and sociological nature all are the factors allied with globalization. Multinational corporations carry out trade on a global basis and their main concerns are fewer trade barriers, profit maximization, satisfying customer. The forces of globalization emphasis on competitiveness, increasing the number of the women become to be a work force, work force become more mobile and diverse then there have flexible work. Globalization is often portrayed that means intensified competition and continuing technological innovation that to stress the important of product quality and customer care. It meets some challenge that competition organizations have been downsized and this challenge subsequently lead to many developments in human resource management (HRM). The important of human competitiveness are increasing realizing because of the organisation and institutions.

Competitive advantage is producing by the perspective of strategic HRM like tacit knowledge, skills and talent. It will enable an organisation to capitalize on opportunities in the market place and avoid threats to its desired position. HR attracting and retaining individuals with skills related to the core competencies of the organization. HR functions like staffing, performance appraisals, training and development, rewards and career planning practices in a dynamic competitive environment. Personal dynamics ensuring that the employees devote to the goals of the company through attention to reward systems, communications, encouragement and career development. Personal being receptive to employee ideas and preparing employees for the new skills demanded by training cross fertilization and job enrichment.The forces of globalization and rapid change have impacted all the organizations involved in the study to steer away from the hierarchical and directive management approaches that traditionally typified their countries corporate cultures to create more flexible styles that can cope with change.

In this article, we can consider that human resource management is known as the era of rapid change and effective human resource management practices play a competitive advantage and organizational performance was positively correlated.If the organisations want to operate on a global basis and they want to survive in international markets when in the times of rapid,unprecedented change, the HRM are very necessary to them.For the example,French, German and Indian global companies illustrate that organisations are responding to the challenges posed by globalisation and rapid changeby adopting more flexible and participative ways of working and highlight the importanceof people and their effective management as a means towards enhancing competitiveadvantage and organisational success.

Now,if we consider what Daft said in his ”The Global Environment”, About Globalization is that, Falling trade barriers make it easier to sell globally. Consumers’ tastes and preferences are converging on some global norm. Firms promote the trend by offering the same basic products worldwide. Technology advancement especially in telecommunication and transportation make it easier for globalization of market, products and production. Some organization want to be globalized their company by exporting their goods and service, some use the licensing strategy ,some use outsourcing to make them more competitive and so on. When an organization is global they also need to understand global culture, norms and values because different countries have different cultures, for example Asian culture is not as same as Western cultures. So the management needs to provide their Human resources cross cultural training as required. So if we argue with the article it is crystal clear that everyone will agree that it is same with the Daft`s “The Global Environment”

Article No-5

This article discussed about globalization, what globalization is and ethical issues in relation with international marketing. Globalization is the process of greater interdependence among countries and their citizens; it. The point of the article from the history of globalization dimensions of globalization and the emergence of global institutions to talk about what globalization. And talk about ethical universals and national cultures from history of ethics, ethical universals and national cultures, ethical approaches in international marketing, ethical problems in international marketing. From this article we have two keywords are globalization and international marketing ethics.

From the history globalization has been going on for the past 5000 years. It has been integrated into the lives of everyone. Developed communications and networks around the world and connect everything and everyone together. And economic globalization means that world trade and financial markets are becoming more integrated. The dimensions of globalization, we can look from these sides: economics, political, sociology, psychology, anthropology, communications and geography. What we study? From our chapter, the manager should know the technology developed and the culture to manage the increase or decrease economics. The emergence of global institutions increase the develop speed of globalization. Like WTO, European Union they are the famous and most succeed global economics institutions The drivers of globalization, because of the decline in barriers to flow of goods, services and capital that has occurred, it stimulate the technology develop very fast.

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies morals and values. Ethical universals and national cultures, we should know what is culture and ethical perceptions and culture. Culture as” that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”. And about ethical perceptions and culture, there is a relationship between the cultural environment and the perceived ethical problems. In international business, different cultural environments result in different ethical perceptions in international marketing, The ethical approaches in international marketing, from this article we are talking about two ways: descriptive approach and normative approach. So the international company’s manager should study other country’s culture, religion, other cultural characteristics and respect it, because different Social Values, Cultural, Language, Religion or Education will lead to our trade fail, and that is the different country has different ethical view. And last one is ethical problems in international marketing, at some country the ethical standards are frequently not defined or always clear. So at the international environment is infinitely more complex. Because value judgments differ widely among culturally. That which is commonly accepted as right on one country may be completely unacceptable in another.

If we compare the article with Dafts “The Global Environment”, it said that today’s organization has become more competitive globally by exporting their products, licensing their company, using direct investing strategy and also doing outsourcing. Today organization cannot survive if they does not compete globally. To make an organization a global organization, they must consider a lot of things, including economic, socio culture, legal-political and human resource management. Daft mention about the cultural intelligence means, the ability to use reasoning and observation skills to interpret unfamiliar gestures and situations and devise appropriate behavior response. Daft also mention about managing cross culturally, means managers can prepare for foreign assignments by understanding how the country differs in terms of Globe social values.

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So, finally with the above discussion we can conclude the article is fully matched with Daft”The Global Environment”

A sense of 'authorial design' in William Faulkner's 'The Sound And The Fury' does not make itself apparent until the second section of the book, narrated by the suicidal Quentin, although the seeds of this design are planted in the earliest pages of the novel, in the first section narrated by Benjy, in the form of hints at future events to be foreshadowed. However, we are not immediately aware of their presence or their effect until certain elements within Benjy's confused narrative are resurrected, embellished, and built-upon in later sections of the story. It is only with the power of hindsight, looking back on the early parts of the narrative, that we realize this sense of design and intelligent structure was there all along.

The initial evidence of this is only small, and is of no great overall importance with regard to the narrative, but it serves the grander purpose of linking together the events depicted in the first, third, and last sections of the book by not only allowing us to piece them together in a chronological way, but also by allowing us to discover for ourselves the causal chain of events that led to their occurrence in the first place. "Aint you going to help me find that quarter so I can go to the show tonight," Luster asks Benjy in the opening passages of the novel. Later, not having found it, he asks Jason for a quarter, to which Jason replies: "I thought Dilsey was going to get a quarter from Frony for you." Luster says she did, and admits that he lost it. He eventually receives the quarter from Caddy's daughter Quentin, and there is no further mention of it until the third section of the novel, which takes place the day before the first section, in which Luster again asks Jason for a quarter so he can go to the show; he does not receive it.

This is merely a trivial plot point, save for what it reveals about the destructive and occasionally malevolent nature of Jason's character when he burns the tickets to the show that Luster wants to go to, rather than giving them to Luster. It is akin to the moment when his father and his namesake orders Benjy's castration and, if not as severe as that event, it is at least more illogical and unreasonable, even though Jason does not see it that way. However, even with its lack of narrative relevance to the novel as a whole, this plot point underscores and upholds the design of the novel in two ways. First, as a purely structural element, it links together two separate sections of the story - the first and the third - and thus it forms a bridge across the chasm of Quentin's section, so we may work out for ourselves the order of continuity in which these events take place. Second, as a more thematically-resonant element, it allows us to witness Jason's display of harsh behavior and thus it allows us to draw the connection between him and his father.

That he carries his father's name is not, in itself, evidence of design - but we suspect that a designer is at work when Caddy's daughter Quentin shares a name with Caddy's brother, and when Benjy, who was once Maury, shared - like Quentin - a name with his uncle. This is evidence of design because it is too coincidental to not be deliberate; and, if it is deliberate, then it must serve a purpose. That purpose is to prompt the reader to look for reasons as to why these characters might share a name and to what those names might signify - and ultimately that purpose is to compare and contrast the individuals who share that name. It is this technique of juxtaposition and mimicry - of contrasting scenes with later scenes and one individual with another individual, and likewise of comparing scenes and individuals - that suggests a design to the novel, with a grand purpose to that design: namely, to illustrate the reasons behind the downfall of the Compsons without explicitly illustrating them. We do not realize that the reasons for their downfall have been illustrated for us until these scenes and individuals are compared and contrasted in hindsight, so we may then go back and evaluate the earlier elements in order to see the cause of the decay: its instigator, Caddy.

Consider Benjy's first recollection in his section of the novel: "Caddy took her dress off and threw it on the bank. Then she didn't have on anything but her bodice and drawers, and Quentin slapped her and she slipped and fell down into the water." In a single paragraph, the events of the entire novel are set in motion. Caddy, at age seven or eight, first asks Versh to take her dress off for her - a foreshadowing of the emerging promiscuity that will ultimately bring about her undoing - and Quentin warns Versh not to do it - likewise, a sign of his over-protectiveness of his sister, which comes to the fore when he slaps her for taking her dress off. Ultimately, too, it is this over-protectiveness that will bring about his downfall - that is, his suicide. But as they are all children at this time, and as we witness this even through the eyes of Benjy, who is unconstrained by time and by conceptions of ordinary morality, we do not realize until much later, when we reconsider this passage detailing the interaction of the siblings, that the seeds of their destruction were planted from the very beginning. While the final section of the novel is narrated from an omniscient, third-person point-of-view, the non-chronological order of the first three sections must be arranged in such an order by that same omniscience, for it gives the story a pace by which we move from disorder to order in the same way we move in a more conventional narrative from conflict to resolution, and thus, though it is not made explicit on a purely narrative level, the novel is nevertheless imbued with an overwhelming sense of fatalistic inevitability.

This inevitability, then, gives rise to an equal sense of hopelessness, which in turn gives rise to the essence of tragedy: judging from the progression of the novel's disorder into order, we know that an ending to the Compson family's legacy is in sight, and that it is not at all pleasant "I seed de beginning, en now I sees de endin," Dilsey says, portentously. This inevitability is brought about by the arrangement and structuring of the four sections of the novel: although the narrative progression is not depicted in chronological order, the thematic progression certainly is. With the central theme of the novel being an exploration of the constraints of time, there is a forward progression in the movement from a completely disorganized and random perception of time in Benjy's section, to a more ordered but still confused perception of time in Quentin's section, to a largely ordered and only occasionally disrupted perception of time in Jason's section, and finally to a supremely ordered and undisrupted depiction of time in the final section. It is almost as if we have a 'God's eye view' of the narrative, beginning in the mind of Benjy and slowly pulling back to reveal an increasingly more objective portrait of the Compsons and, more specifically, of the absent Caddy. This suggests design by way of a seemingly random but essentially logically-ordered arrangement of the narrative structure in such a way as to ensure that the true subject of the story - Caddy Compson - always remains at the core of the narrative, as its focus.

Nowhere in the story is this sense of inevitability more powerful than in Quentin's section on June Second, 1910. More than any of the other sections, Quentin's section operates in a similar way to the novel as a whole, but on a microcosmic level - it employs the same structure as the entire novel, but condenses that structure into a single chapter. From the moment we realize that Quentin is the narrator of this section, with the resentful words "[Jesus] had no sister" - which imply a kind of over-protectiveness toward a sister, such as that we have already witnessed in Benjy's section - we suspect how his story ends: with his suicide. We do not receive confirmation of this, however, unless we put together the pieces of what we already know, for there is a technique at work here, as follows. Roskus does not mention Quentin by name in Benjy's section when he tells Dilsey that "Aint the sign of [bad luck] been here for folks to see fifteen years now" - but nevertheless, there is the implication of some terrible occurrence in the Compson household that took place about fifteen years ago. Moreover, there is the implication that someone died - "Dying aint all," says Roskus - and there is also the implication (by way of the symbolic deathly screech of the "squinch owl") that more bad luck is yet to come. A sense of design is made evident when Benjy's story is immediately followed by Quentin's story, dated "June Second, 1910" just over fifteen years before the events preceding Benjy's section on "April Seventh, 1928." We know, then, by way of Roskus' earlier comments, that something of great resonance takes place in this chapter, and, several paragraphs into it, we know that whatever it is, it happens to Quentin. Indeed, when Quentin recalls how he held Caddy at knifepoint and told her he could kill her and then kill himself, we realize that this is exactly what he will do, for Caddy has lost her virginity and so the idealized version of her that Quentin once held dear is now 'dead' - is gone forever: therefore, there is nothing left for him to do but to kill himself, as he earlier promised.

But simple foreshadowing is not the mere gimmicky end-purpose of the novel's design; it is simply the purpose of this section of the novel in order to underscore the story's overarching theme of time. The sluglines at the beginning of each section indicate a specific but overall jumbled timeframe, and, being conditioned to more conventionally-structured works of fiction, we immediately attempt to impose this narrative onto a more solid timeframe in our mind's eye. With our failure to do this in Benjy's section, we realize that he exists in a world free from time's constraints, and with our successful ability to do this in Quentin's section, we realize that he exists in a world trapped by time's constraints. This comparison and contrast between two sets of two of the three brothers, whose respective sections immediately precede or follow another's - that is, between Benjy and Quentin, and between Quentin and Jason - gives the novel its overall sense of design, which then impacts upon and shapes its central theme. The purpose of the design of the overall novel - as opposed to simply any one section of the novel - is to paint a portrait of an individual who exists outside of time; not Benjy, who naturally exists outside of time, and not Quentin, who forces himself to exist outside of time, and not Jason, who lives in the past and exists outside of the present time, but rather it is a portrait of Caddy, not as a girl but as an ideal which, by its very nature as a purely metaphysical thing, must exist outside of time. But this ideal can only exist outside of time if exactly the same idealized version of Caddy is held by the three brothers, with no differing opinions on their perception of that ideal.

For the first two brothers, this is embodied in the notion of castration. Benjy is castrated because, it is implied, he attempts to rape a girl - not a specific girl, but an anonymous one; yet he knows he has lost something, and the loss he feels is equated with the sense of loss he felt when he first saw Caddy after she lost her virginity. Likewise, after Caddy has lost her virginity, Quentin tells his father he wishes he was a eunuch so he would not think about sex (that is, with his sister). Consider also that in Quentin's section of the novel, Benjy pulls at Caddy's dress when he senses she is no longer a virgin while, in Benjy's section of the novel, Quentin urges Caddy to keep her dress on as she climbs the tree - a symbol of temptation, the scent of which torments Quentin. Only by way of this contrast between the two brothers can Caddy be portrayed as an ideal: Benjy has lost something he did not want to lose, Quentin wishes to lose something he does not want to have, but both brothers have lost an idealized version of their beloved sister and it is a completely involuntary loss that neither of them can reclaim. Caddy could easily have been perceived as an ideal by each of the brothers, but she could not have been perceived as the same kind of ideal by both brothers unless this specific design and structure was employed to separate their stories, to plant seeds in one that are sown in the other, to compare and contrast in order to salvage the overall portrait of the girl and of her idealized self.

This comparison and contrast between the two brothers comes to a head in the third section of the novel, narrated by Jason. Jason is a combination of the two brothers - like Quentin he is emotionally dead, although physically animated; like Benjy he has lost many things, but is trying desperately to reclaim something, anything. We would not understand this connection between the three brothers were it not for the specific design of the comparison/contrast structure imposed on the narrative, that gradually distances us from the wholly subjective perspective held by Benjy and moves us toward the largely objective perspective held by Jason.

How is it, then, that Jason is able to hold exactly the same kind of idealized version of Caddy in his mind, as held by both Benjy and Quentin, if he does not perceive her as an object of desire, as they do? Perhaps it is because neither Benjy nor Quentin actually perceive her as an object of desire, but rather all three brothers view their sister as someone they have idealized as a person who, in her absence, brings about a sense of loss, and who, in her presence, is capable of negating that loss. Neither Benjy nor Quentin nor Jason specifically want Caddy back, at least not as an individual person; but they simply want Caddy back because when she lost her virginity, when she left behind a child, and when she left altogether, she took something away from each of the brothers' lives - and it is that something that they each seek to reclaim. Caddy is simply the embodiment of that something; she is the common element of loss that cannot be regained; that is why she becomes, for each of them, an unattainable ideal.

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Consider, finally, the closing passage of the novel: evidence, in narrative form, of the design as outlined above. "Luster looked quickly back over his shoulder, then he drove on" - in the same way we might read the novel as both a forward-moving narrative and as a backward-looking exercise in the significance of hindsight. Now consider the final sentence: "Post and tree, window and doorway and signboard [were] each in [their] ordered place" - in much the same way the different sections of the novel are each in their ordered place, with the same structure as this observation, from the disordered size and height of the post and tree, to the more ordered placement of the window and doorway, to the supremely ordered ability to convey information of the signpost. Indeed, this is typical of the entire final section of the novel, which is essentially a summation, via Reverend Shegog's speech, of the history of the decaying Compson family thus far - as if the omniscient designer were commenting and passing judgment on the events that have taken place to lead up to this moment; for what is time, but a measurement of the present against the past? - and therein lies the evidence of design. That the quality of events and characters within a novel can be measured, and that the structure of such a novel would invite readers to measure these things for themselves, suggests that those events have been orchestrated for a specific purpose, and those characters have been imbued with specific qualities and histories, and together they have been structured in such a way as would not only imply but would necessitate an intelligent design to the novel, in order to give the contents therein some kind of valuable thematic meaning.

This novel is entitled Sula, after the woman who takes the conventions of her small home town and turns them completely upside down, but the story itself would not be complete without her friend and counterpart who embodies these conventions, Nel. Although overall this is not a very realistic novel, Morrison builds these two characters realistically out of their two very different upbringings. One girl has her imagination stifled and is always surrounded by order and cleanliness, with a mother who is a moral pillar of the community, while the second little girl comes of age in a household that is in constant disarray, with no male role models and a mother who is openly promiscuous. In spite of their very different origins, the two girls find each other and build a strong bond of friendship. By presenting the reader with these two friends who eventually choose opposing paths in their adult lives, Morrison conveys her criticism of people who blindly succumb to societal conventions, revealing it as a shortcoming that can be detrimental to a person's humanity. The "evil" actions of Sula provide a dialectic to the rest of the people in the Bottom who seem to thrive on conformity. What exactly is evil and why is it dangerous to live a life of conformity like Nel? These are the questions that I tend to explore in this paper. First of all though, it is necessary to understand where these two women come from by investigating the important events of their childhood.

Helene Wright is taught by her grandmother to be ashamed of her prostitute mother while being raised with religion, "under the dolesome eyes of a multicolored Virgin Mary,"(17) and she transfers this strict upbringing onto her own daughter Nel, after she moves as far away from her New Orleans home as possible, to the Bottom. Since Helene wanted a polite, obedient daughter, she quells her imagination making the girl vulnerable to the grip of convention, "Any enthusiasms that little Nel showed were calmed by her mother until she drove her daughter's imagination underground."(18) In order to oppose or even think of opposing convention, an individual must have imagination, which will give her the ability to think for herself. Abiding by convention requires no imagination, one simply mindlessly joins the crowd. Nel also becomes adversely affected by the incident on the train, which is a pivotal moment in her life.

It is not the increasing racism and presence of segregation on the southbound trip that profoundly affects Nel so much as the look that she sees in the black soldiers' faces when her mother smiles at the racist white conductor.

"It was on that train, shuffling towards Cincinnati, that she resolved to be on guard-always. She wanted to make certain that no man ever looked at her that way. That no midnight eyes or marbled flesh would ever accost her and turn her into jelly."(22)

At this point, Nel makes the conscious decision to avoid the look of disapproval at all costs, which comes to mean, later in her life, that she must follow the rules of society or suffer this same disgrace all over again. Helene had already instilled in the young girl a tendency to conform by constricting her imagination, and after this incident, Nel herself resolves to avoid confrontation, completing the education that renders her unable to resist convention. A look into the friend Nel acquires after this trip reveals a completely different situation.

The Peace household was a place, "...where all sorts of people dropped in; where newspapers were stacked in the hallway, and dirty dishes left for hours at a time in the sink..."(29); a far cry from the order and discipline of the Wright household. Even the physical structure of the house itself is confusing, with inaccessible rooms and doors continually being added on by Eva, who is the master and demigod of the family, and this confusion and disorder translates directly into the family's relationships. Sula's two main role models, who were her mother Hannah and Eva, never had a steady relationship with any male outside of their respective husbands who were not around for long. Instead, there was a constant flow of strange men in the house consisting of Hannah's daily lovers and Eva's gentlemen callers. Aside from Boyboy, the one man she hates, Eva loves men in general, "It was manlove that Eva bequeathed to her daughters...The Peace women simply loved maleness, for its own sake."(41) When Sula is older, she inevitably falls right in line with this behavior. While Nel's mother never teaches her about sex, Hannah "rippled with sex,"(42) and Sula drew her own conclusions about it directly from her mother's behavior,

"Seeing (Hannah) step so easily into the pantry and emerge looking precisely as she did when she entered, only happier, taught Sula that sex was pleasant and frequent, but otherwise unremarkable...So she watched her mother's face and the face of the men when they opened the pantry door and made up her own mind."(44)

Sex for Sula has nothing to do with love or even friendship; it is no more than an act that two people of the opposite sex engage in in order to make each other happy. What could be simpler while still being contrary to every moral standard of society than that? The girl's behavior as an adult is a reflection of these supposedly immoral lessons that she learned from her mother as a child.

Nel and Sula as individuals were both lacking in a certain respect: Nel was unable to "think outside the box" without Sula, while Sula herself was unable to make reasonable decisions not completely governed by her emotions without Nel. The two halves make a whole. Morrison states that, "...they had already made each other's acquaintance in the delirium of their noon dreams2E"(51) One girl is so much a part the other that they knew each other before they physically met. Together, the two friends embarked on the road to womanhood attempting always to find a place in white America,

"Because each had discovered years before that they were neither white nor male, and that all freedom and triumph was forbidden to them, they set about creating something else to be...Daughters of distant mothers and incomprehensible fathers...they found in each other's eyes the intimacy they were looking for."(52)

So these two little girls, raised in completely different worlds, manage to find in each other a compliment to their own personalities and a closeness that they were unable to salvage from their differently inadequate parents2E It is within this relationship that they have their first encounter with the idea of evil-the Chicken Little incident.

While it is Sula who actually lets go of Chicken Little's hand, Nel is the one who taunts him to start with, drawing him into the interaction that results in his death. The two inadvertently work together in the boy's demise, and the first thing Nel says after he disappears beneath the calm water, when one would expect her to shout out in grief or even disbelief is, "Somebody saw."(61) Later, at the funeral, Nel's sense of guilt becomes even more apparent, "Although she knew she had 'done nothing,' she felt convicted and hanged right there in the pew."(65) She is not concerned about the loss of Chicken Little, only the idea that she is guilty of an evil act bothers her. On the contrary, "Sula simply cried,"(65) which exemplifies her remorse over the death of the little boy. Ironically, it is the girl who will later be considered evil by her community who mourns the loss of life and her "moral" friend who is only concerned about herself.

This blurring of the line between good and evil only becomes evident to Nel forty-three years later when Eva brings the subject up and confuses her with Sula. After Nel protests to Eva that it was Sula and not she who had killed the boy, Eva replies, "You. Sula. What's the difference? You was there. You watched didn't you?"(168) and even goes so far as to say, "Just alike. Both of you. Never was no difference between you."(169) After this encounter, Nel consciously recalls "The good feeling she had had when Chicken's hands slipped."(170) This realization makes Nel aware of the fact that she really is no different from Sula in that they are both human, and therefore imperfect. Part of this basic human imperfection is the fact that we all have a dark side whether or not we would like to admit it. Nel watched Chicken Little become a part of the river with the same sick fascination that turns heads at the scene of an accident or that causes people to secretly hope for a car crash during a race. In order to understand this secretive side of ourselves, we must first be able to acknowledge its presence, which the people of the Bottom, including Nel prior to her confrontation with Eva, are incapable of. Since they cannot understand the side of themselves that the woman Sula comes to represent, the people of the Bottom shun her and label her as being evil.

Even though the black community of the Bottom, as Morrison continually emphasizes, does recognize the fact that evil is an inevitable part of life, they are too quick to label anyone who deviates from their accepted conventions as being evil. They know that, "(God) was not the God of three faces that they sang about. They knew quite well that He had a fourth and that the fourth explained Sula,"(118) but the shortcoming in this logic is the fact that the people do not apply it to themselves and consequently fail to recognize the evils inherent in their conformity. Sula is simply acting out the life that the rest of the community desires in their secret subconscious, "she lived out her days exploring her own thoughts and emotions, giving them full reign, feeling no obligation to please anybody unless their pleasure pleased her."(118) This type of life may appear to be entirely selfish, and indeed it is, but it is also very honest. If Nel and her cohorts were to take a true, honest look at their own hopes and desires, then they would realize that selfishness does not necessarily mean a complete rejection of others. In loving someone a person loves the fact that that other person brings out the best in her, which is essentially a selfish, but not evil end. Unfortunately, the conventions of society place very negative connotations on the this word, which renders a person like Sula, who is openly selfish, an object of dissension and evil. She becomes a pariah because she admits what no one else will; that first and foremost a person must live her life for herself, and in turn this honesty will leave her open and more capable of sharing her love of self with others. Nel and Sula's childhood friendship is an example of selfish love that was beneficial to both parties. During this time, the two girls were able to bear witness to the false sense of morality that consumed the adults around them. While Sula still carried this sentiment with her into her adult life, it is the fact that Nel no longer felt this way due to her complete assimilation into society that comes between the two friends.

"(Sula) knew well enough what other women felt, or said they felt. But she and Nel had always seen through them. They both knew that those women were not jealous of other women; that they were only afraid of losing their jobs2E Afraid their husbands would discover that no uniqueness lay between their legs."(119)

Sula is not a malicious person and would never willingly hurt Nel, who is the one person she ever truly loved, "She had no thought at all of causing Nel pain when she bedded down with Jude."(119)

Nel, however, has embraced the conventions of her society so fully that she feels as though she has experienced the ultimate act of betrayal when she catches Sula and Jude in the act. She has become one of the women that the two little girlfriends used to criticize, only upset because she "...knew how to behave as the wronged wife."(120) Since her marriage, Nel had allowed conventions and rules to dictate her existence because she was afraid of the "free fall...that demanded invention."(120) By allowing convention to control her action, Nel is in denial of her own humanity because she decides nothing on her own. All of her ideals are formed out of the ideals of society, which robs her of her sense of self, diminishing the quality of her life. Any idea that negates life in this way is evil in and of itself.

Even three years later when Nel sees Sula for the first time since their falling out, she is still obsessed with the idea that Sula robbed her of something, but Sula corrects her in saying that Jude wasn't taken, he left. If Nel's beloved husband had cared about their relationship, then he would not have had sex with Sula; therefore, the fact that he did indicates that he had already left the relationship, which was originally founded on mere affection in the first place and not true love. The blindness that results from Nel's conformity makes her oblivious to the fact that she has lost the best friend and loved one she ever had simply because society tells her that Sula is evil. She was doing,

"...what every colored woman in this country is doing.'

'What's that?'

'Dying. Just like me. But the difference is they dying like a stump. Me, I'm going down like one of those redwoods. I sure did live in this world.'"(143)

Nel has not truly lived because she has not been living for herself. She is incomplete-a "stump" that is incapable of forgiving her friend before she dies, but Sula's last words come back to haunt her in the end of the novel, "How you know?...About who was good. How you know it was you?...maybe it wasn't you. Maybe it was me."(146)

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How does anyone know whom or what is good and evil? This is a question that will never have any definite answer, and it is works such as this novel that help people realize this important fact. Societies like the one in the Bottom believe that there is a concrete answer to this question and that it simply involves whether or not an individual adheres to the accepted moral standards of that society, but this is a dangerous assumption. To accept conventions such as marriage exactly the way society dictates, as Nel does, is a denial of the self, because individuals must always question what they are told. Without people like Sula, we easily forget that our lives are molded around an accepted standard that is not necessarily just, right or good, it is simply accepted. Nel gave up her one true comrade in order to remain an integral part of her society, essentially giving up everything for nothing. Life means nothing without love and friendship, and true friendship is a bond that should transcend societal boundaries. Nel and Sula knew and understood this concept when they were young, and Sula retained this ideal until the end, whereas Nel lost track of her priorities when she gave herself up to conformity. The greatest evil revealed by this novel is the evil inherent in denying one's self in order to place the comfort and ease of convention above one's true nature and desire. By labeling Sula as evil, the Bottom unwittingly revealed the evils of its societal infrastructure-the evils of mindless conformity that deny true humanity. Morrison's ending saves itself from being completely tragic when Nel finally realizes the importance of her friendship with Sula over her position as a wronged wife. "'All that time, all that time, I thought I was missing Jude...We was girls together...O Lord, Sula,' she cried, 'girl, girl, girlgirlgirl.'"(174) Given the circumstances, this is a happy ending, because Nel has finally realized the error of her ways and is able to truly mourn her lost companion.

Table of contents

1. Biology for science
Evidence for natural selection
2. Conclusion

Biology for science

Natural selection is a geophysical process is capable of heterotrophic formation of liposomes that grow at some base rate, divide by external agitation, in the absence of any nucleotides or any monomers capable of modular heredity. Selection at the liposome level results in the stabilization of rarely occurring molecular auto catalyst that either catalysts or are consumed. It explains the significant breakthrough in the understanding of instinctive behaviour. Natural selection explains it’s in heritance, variation and gradual accumulation within populations. Selection among Proliferous plants cannot be neatly classed under the origin and categories of artificial, natural or sexual selection. Evolution requires following conditions:

• Selective environment.
• Variation of traits in population.
• Different survival.
• Reproduction among types of organism.
• Heritable traits.

Natural selection also involve the evolution that ensure adaptive changes without the obligatory role of natural selection. According to the mechanism, the first event is an adaptive change (change of phenotypes), followed by stochastic genetics which makes the transformation irrepressible. The knowledge of anatomy, comparative anatomy, evolution, and natural selection allows us to have a more profound understanding of the interaction between form and function.

Evidence for natural selection

There are number of species in the world that contribute to evolution and Darwin finches is one of them. The Galapagos archipelago is known worldwide for its contribution to Charles Darwin’ theory of evolution by natural selection, and the island continue to support studies in evolutionary biology. They which are home to an amazing array of unique animal species: giant tortoises, iguanas, fur seals, sea lion, shark, and26 species of the native birds—14 of which make up group known as Darwin’s finches. These finches are considering to be the world fastest- evolving vertebrates because their appearance and behaviour quickly adapted to this closed and rapidly changing environment. Finches are mostly known for their beak form and function. He described small birds “resembling the java sparrow” in shape and size, but of black plumage.

Darwin visit to H.M.S. Beagle in 1835, the bird specimens collected by Darwin were described by Gould (1837), who recognized the finches as entirely new group, while the influence which these and other Galapagos animals exerted on Darwin viewed on evolution is common knowledge. Darwin first questioned the mutability of species when in the Galapagos, through finding different form of the mocking birds and tortoise on different islands. Are more complex and their influence are more apparently retrospective. Charles Darwin later become intrigued by their varying shapes and sizes of the closely related bird’s beaks. Each beak appeared to be specialized for task, such as cracking seeds or drinking nectar. Different shapes arise on where and when its signalling molecule, called bone morphogenic protein.

Molecular clock based upon amino acid sequence in proteins have played a major role in the clarification of evolutionary phylogenies. According to their hypothesis. Mutations leading to changes in the amino acid sequence of cytochrome c were determined 1,000,000 year ago. The molecular clock hypothesis that genes and protein evolve at the constant rate. Molecular clock applies to HIV-1’s early evolution in the presence of immune selection has not yet been fully examine.

The hypothesis postulates that the rate of evolution in a macromolecule measured by changes in amino acid sequences and more recently by nucleotide sequences is roughly constant overtime, hence its validity has become a controversial issue, due to its concept was contrary to the erratic tempo of phenotypic evolution. Human cytochrome is differing from that of an alligator by 13 amino acids, but it differs by 14 amino acids from a much very related primate. It provides information about data analysis. Molecular clock estimate, but accuracy and precision are dominated by the quality of the relic calibrations. Posterior means and medians are poor representative through divergences times; posterior interval provide a much more accurate estimate of divergence times, though they may be wide and often do not have high coverage probability.

Conclusion

Natural selection explain how evolution occurred and evidence is Darwin finches and against is molecular clock. Natural selection also explains the common occurrence of homologous physical structure in different organisms. Darwin finches plays important role by distinguish their beak size in Galapagos island. Molecular clock is against the evidence of natural selection for estimate fossils correction.

Across the world, there are countries that are more economically developed than others. There are excellent, thriving economies versus troubled, plummeting economies, struggling to upkeep their standards of living. An example of a nation with a thriving economy would be the United States. According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, the USA’s GDP has drastically increased by 2% within the past quarter. When a nation’s GDP rises, economies get a vital boost and progress. This rise in the GDP demonstrates the value being added to the economy. As a result, the standard of living rises, meaning that citizens' incomes are increasing which allows for more consumer spending on goods and services. An important factor of a booming economy is that there is some mutual balance between unemployment and inflation. Other factors to consider when determining if an economy’s stability or instability are those such as climate change, demographics, the limitations of resources, and more. A country with a lack of resources due to a poorly managed agriculture, pollution, poor quality of life, low GDP, etc., has a deteriorating, failing economy. Naturally, these economic activities depend on geography or location, which is a logical explanation for why the Global North is more economically developed than the Global South. However, it also seems to be that people are also a major factor in why their standards of living and economy are the way they are. Depending on where a person resides, fortunately, or unfortunately determines their economy and standards of living. To analyze the gap between the Global North and South, this essay discusses economic development of North and South countries.

The world is divided into two hemispheres known as the Global North and the Global South. The Global North includes the more economically developed countries, known as the First World countries. The Global South, however, represents the 'economically backward' underdeveloped countries. The Global North consists of regions such as North America, India, Europe, Israel, South Africa, and more. The Global South consists of most of Africa, Mexico, China, India, and other developing, third-world countries. Geography plays a major role as to why the Global North is more developed and successful than the Global South but is not the primary role. During the 1980’s, the Brandt Line, which is an invisible line, was developed. The line was developed as a 'way of showing how the world was geographically split into relatively richer and poorer nations' (Royal). According to Brandt, he found that that the northern countries above the partition line interact successfully with others and had high levels of trade, 'boosting the quality of life for their population' (Tait). However, over time, there have been global shifts that affected these divided regions differently.

Geography determines a country’s socioeconomic status, however, the people of the country can often be the reason their economy is shaped the way it is. According to a case study by Elizabeth Wegman, Rwanda, which is a rural country in Central-East Africa, classifies as a 'low-income economy.” A major portion of Rwanda’s population lives below the poverty line. In Global South countries such as Rwanda, there have been histories of violence and crime by local civilians, shaping their economy for the worse. In the 1990's, Rwanda was associated with a civil war which was between the 'Hutu and Tutsi African ethnic groups,' resulting in genocide (Wegman). This civil war happened as a result of the death of Rwanda's president when his plane was brought down by the Tutsis. The Hutus, known as the people of Rwanda, fought the Tutsis when they found out. The genocide resulted in over 800,000 deaths of innocent people. This genocide negatively impacted Rwanda's economy, which explains their existing poverty.

According to Lopez, approximately one-fourth of Rwanda’s population remains in poverty today due to the result of the Genocide. Poverty was at risk for the Rwandans because the genocide caused destruction of livestock, property, resources (such as livestock), and infrastructure. These kinds of violent conflicts are long-lasting, as they can create long-term damage to a country's economy. Reparation of these conflicts could take several years. Due to this, some Rwandans voluntarily help 'reconstruct the country' by involving themselves 'in activities such as cleaning streets, repairing buildings, offering services to those who do not have access to them'. Even though Rwanda is steadily progressing and recovering, making necessary reparations, Rwanda is still struggling to survive. Although the Rwandans are heavily into agriculture, the overpopulation issue has made fertile lands difficult to come by. This potentially means that there is a food shortage, and workers aren’t producing goods for consumers to buy. Rwanda’s “population growth and density remain high, threatening to strain and potentially harm economic growth” (Rwanda Case Study). If it were not for the Genocide, the rate of Rwanda's poverty level would be decreased by approximately 20 percentage points. Rwanda's GDP would have been much higher than it is today by 30 percentage points.

Rwanda’s history of war and violence also helped shaped Rwanda's government. It took a major war for Rwanda to change its government around. Because Rwanda relies heavily and depends on imports, the Rwandan government faces a significant amount of account deficits. Rwanda's government intends to take measures to improve its business climate. However, the progress towards this economic freedom is hindered by institutional weaknesses. Their own judicial system lacks independence and transparency.

The Global South is not as advanced and developed as the Global North because the Global South does not concentrate as much in urban areas. They rely on a global agriculture economy, meaning that they make their livings off of trading resources such as cash crops, livestock, and food crops. Urban companies are turning to new advanced technologies to produce and develop their own resources and supplies. Urban areas have more minimized economic and social risks linked with farming, such as facing pay demands or better admeasurement of their dividends and profits. The Global South remains today with an increasing rate of people laboring in more rural areas than the Global North. '65% of the Global South are rurally based, compared to less than 27% in the Global North' (Odeh). As Rwanda demonstrates, 58% of the working labor force in the Global South is engaged in agriculture, whilst the Global North is engaged in approximately 50% of agriculture in the labor force (Odeh). The Global South is focused more on agricultural production than the Global North because the Global South people's incomes are drastically lower than the North’s. The Global South has major concerns they focus on regarding food, shelter, and clothing, which is why they are dependent on the Global North.

The Global North and Global South have international relations. The Global South has an economic dependence on the Global North, meaning that the South is more vulnerable and the North is more powerful and has the strength that the South does not acquire. “... technology, foreign aid, and private capital are transferred to Global South” (Odeh). This transfer is due to the Global South's rise in unemployment and increased income inequality. Strauss and Thomas argue that the cause for such low productivity may be due the pressures of competitive work and lack of advanced technologies. Therefore, low productivity means lower incomes. The Global South is considered non-productive members of society, which is why they are heavily supported by and rely on the Global North. The Global North “accounts for over 90% of all manufacturing industries in the world and controls approximately 80% of the total income earned around” (Ortiz-Ospina, Roser). Most of the countries in the Global North have an abundance of basic needs, such as food and shelter, along with access to their higher education systems. The Global South is known to have a lack of goods and services, such as food, clothing, shelter and more for survival. They have limited resources due to their lack of income and wealth, therefore, they are not able to easily buy consumer goods in comparison to the Global North.

There are challenges faced by the Global South regarding the education systems. The Global North heavily focuses on making sure their students acquire the best education possible. They have their students learn multiple, useful life skills to better prepare them for the outside world. The lower income classes in the Global South are confronted with issues such as getting their students to learn. Students in these countries struggle with learning how to read, write, and learn the numerical system. Approximately '250 million young students' are failing to get a proper education, as well as being able to attend school (Education World). It hasn't been until recently that these some of these countries have been introduced to universal school access.

In 2004, the birth and death rates were drastically different between the Global South and Global North (Odeh). In the Global South, the population grew rapidly due to the increased birth rates, as opposed to the lower birth rates in the Global North. 'For the Global North birth rates are on the order of 15-20 per 1,000 populations where in the Global South the birth rates range from 30-40 per 1,000 populations' (Odeh). The increase of birth rates usually occur because some countries in the Global South cannot afford contraceptives. Along with rapid birth rates in the Global South, the death rate is increasingly higher than in the Global North. Some of the top reasons for these deaths in these less developed countries include HIV/AIDS, malaria, and heart disease. According to the CDC, “approximately 3.3 million (30%) deaths annually were due to heart disease, 2.3 million (21%) to cancer… 9 million (8%) to chronic respiratory diseases, and 0.8 million (7%) to violent causes.”

According to Odeh, children under the age of 15 make up approximately 40% of the total population in the Global South, in contrast to the Global North, whose children under 15 only make up about 20% of the total population. What does this mean for the Global South? Their labor force is most likely supported by young teenagers and are labeled as an 'economic dependence,” meaning that some of the people in these Global South countries sometimes depend on young teenagers for income. Sometimes children in these countries are viewed as a cheap source of labor.

To further explain the Global South’s difficulties and disadvantages in comparison to the Global North, there is a case study called Rainwater and Health in Developing Countries: A Case Study on Uganda, by David Baguma and others. Baguma focuses on the harvesting of rainwater in rural areas, based on a study which was conducted in Uganda (located in east Africa) known as the Ugandan Case. In Uganda, there are complications of attaining water. According to the Prime Minister of Uganda, Amama Mbabazi, the 'lack of access to safe water and sanitation facilities has a detrimental impact on health, productivity, and general socio-economic progress of our people, especially the children' (Baguma). Approximately only one-third of Uganda's rural populations have sufficient sanitation for water meaning that about 60% of Ugandans do not have access to safe water. As a result, the Ugandan government decided to increase their budget allocation from 271 billion to 355 billion shillings to the country's water sector, however, there still remain obstacles. There are quite a few water related diseases in households, which cause economic burdens and morbidity rates to rise. These water related diseases cause about 2 million deaths a year. Usually when there is a water shortage, the people in east africa use 'rain-fed' pots as an alternative source of water, which means they leave their pots outside and wait for the rain to fill the pots. Uganda has a scarce water supply due to climate change and the lack of sanitation stations, which explains how geography or location can affect a country’s economy.

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This essay has analyzed the gap in development between the Global North and South. It is quite obvious that the Global North is highly more advanced than the Global South. They can be distinguished as the developed and developing countries, or the “rich” versus the “poor” countries. The Global North has more advanced technologies used for agriculture, which is one of the many reasons why their economies are booming. However, they do have their downsides, depending on how well their GDP and employment rates are doing. The Global North also have great education systems which allows children to thrive and succeed, with higher chances of furthering their education or attaining a job. Opposed to the Global South, whose education systems are more lacking and students are more than likely to drop out of school because they are unable to read or write. Geography seems to play a significant role in why nations’ economies are the way they are. Some countries have to worry about climate changes, droughts, violence, lack of resources, and more.

“The measure of intelligence is the ability to change.” – Stephen Hawking. The evolution of communication is mankind’s tool that supports the development of human connection methods from prehistoric times completely up to today, however to what extent? A good estimate about fifty years ago, there were no mobile phones, no computers, and no e-mail for you to use. Living without these communication methods may seem like living in ancient times or the 1800s. This role that is playing a huge part in society and how it evolved. This role is communication, communications in the modern era have changed drastically and rely on technology. Instead of human contact face to face interactions and communication have been in the beginning of mankind. It has become somewhat where email and networking-based communications would far off be better. Technology becoming more and more manipulative through the use of these networking applications and many more. Although some can have a balance between human connection and technology, it has weakened the image of friendships and diminished the value of human connection.

To demonstrate, admiration and emotions are absent from communication, people just send the content to others without consideration.

Hence the communication is manipulative, it’s based on data, market demand, reputation in the society, and popularity. Society treats the rich and poor differently. Society selects the leaders based on popularity and not on principle and merit. Now, these things reduce the trust and emotions in those who actually want to use their platform for good. A big factor that played a part of this environment was computers. Sources state “Over the past few decades, technology usage has grown significantly. Per the U.S. Census, 76% of households reported having a computer in 2011, compared with only 8% in 1984. Of that number, 72% of households reported accessing the Internet, up from just 18% in 1998, the first year the Census”.

Computer networking is the biggest modernization in the world of communication that humans have yet to experience. Not only do computers help people to communicate in a variety of new ways, but they also communicate with each other. With computers came the leading edge of email. More convenient than a phone because email allowed people to contact individuals or groups any time of the day or night without concern for time zones or long-distance calling fees. This drastic increase in technology usage is affecting the younger generations as well. For instance “one study, conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation, found people ages 8 to 18 spent more time on media than on any other activity – at an average of 7.5 hours a day”. This goes to show that kids are tapping into their phones and aren’t tapping into their environment. To relate back to the topic this has diminished the value of human connection for there are twenty-four hours in a day, within those twenty-four people are on media for an average of “7.5 hours a day” as the Kaiser Family Foundation study proves. Thus leaving about sixteen hours and then on average people are sleeping seven or eight hours, now leaving eight hours of productivity which from the study of ages 8 to 18 would be in school which can be up to four through eight hours. This leaves an insignificant amount of hours to interact with the environment, therefore, is influenced by the people of reputation in the social media side. Today, it is considered as a business tool helping small businesses grow as sources stated “Internet access became more common and more affordable as the 21st century neared. Society began to view electronic communication methods like email and instant messaging as a normal things being crucial to their everyday lives.

To further develop, like computers came mobile phones. Since the mobile phone was introduced in 1973, there weren’t many changes made to it until the1990’s. The size remained rather impossible due to the need for designing a maller battery. Once that improvement occurred, sizes began to shrink and their appeal increased to society. Initially, phones were solely used for telephone calls but this constantly changed. Models began to have other functions such as a camera, an MP3 player, and the internet. As time moved on mobile devices gained popularity and became dominant throughout the globe the mobile phone is now a part of our popular culture. New customs, rituals, and routines are developing around what is being used every day. According to GSMA Intelligence, the “number of mobile devices is 7.22 billion while the US Census Bureau says this figure is still between 7.19 and 7.2 billion. The growing number of smartphones and smartphone owners raises an effect on human health and life.” This worldwide spread of mobile phones being about 7.22 billion worldwide shows how effective and depth this type of influence can reach. The good thing about this is that if you wanted to reach somebody on the other side of the planet you would be able to via calling through skype and many other applications or platforms that allow it, all for free with access to the internet. However, all of this may sound favorable such as advanced features of the smartphone, internet communication, information retrieval, video, e-business, and other features, that make the device highly popular among people. However according to Pew research center, “the number of smartphone owners comprises 56% of American adults in 2013 and their average daily use of the device is about 195 minutes. The number of cellphone users increases every year.” Several studies show the connection between cell phone usage and the physical state of the users’ health. Some studies report that users complain about a headache, hand tremors,s and finger discomfort. In his research, Berlo noted that “mobile hand-held device users complain of discomfort at least on one area of upper extremities, back or neck. Long-term usage of the device leads to additional tension on tendons, muscles, and parametric tissue, which could result in visual display terminal (VDT) syndrome. In similar studies on working with desktop, the scientists recommend regular rest periods, stretching, and exercises.”

To conclude, the Evolution of communication is mankind’s tool that supports the development of human connection methods from prehistoric times all the way up to today. Although some can have a balance between human connection and technology, it has weakened the image of friendships and diminished the value of human connection. Technology has changed our approach and expectations toward communication. If people are late to a class, meeting, an event, etc. they are expected to notify others via their mobile phones. It is no longer necessary to agree on when and where to meet people can just call or text each other on their mobile phones and say where they are at the moment. The mobile phone has freed us from the constraints of space. Human communication has been set from the day we stood up on two legs, communication is vital for our survival. Without talking to each other, we would be eaten up by our own loneliness.

Works Cited

1. Census Bureau. (2011). Computer and Internet Use in the United States: 2011. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2013/acs/acs-28.html
2. Katz, J. E., & Aakhus, M. A. (Eds.). (2002). Perpetual contact: Mobile communication, private talk, public performance. Cambridge University Press.
3. Lenhart, A., Madden, M., Macgill, A. R., & Smith, A. (2007). Teens and social media. Pew Internet & American Life Project.
4. Markoff, J. (2005). What the dormouse said: How the 60s counterculture shaped the personal computer industry. Penguin.
5. Pew Research Center. (2013). Cell phone activities 2013. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2013/09/19/cell-phone-activities-2013/
6. Rheingold, H. (2002). Smart mobs: The next social revolution. Basic Books.
7. Rosen, L. D., Mark Carrier, L., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.
8. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
9. Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Basic Books.
10. Wellman, B., Quan-Haase, A., Boase, J., Chen, W., Hampton, K., Díaz, I., & Miyata, K. (2003). The social affordances of the internet for networked individualism. Journal of computer-mediated communication, 8(3), JCMC834.

Table of contents

1. Cellular System
2. Cordless Telephone (CT) System
3. Wide Area Paging Systems
4. Trends in Cellular Radio and Personal Communications

The conversation established between two users with their handheld equipment at different locations is commonly referred as mobile communication. In the beginning, its focus was towards voice but later on, it also dealt with data. Currently cellular phone provide many services including E-mail, internet access, short message service, electronic address book, games and calculator. Further progress is being made to attract users towards commercial product. Subscribers can handle it anywhere due to cellular phones’ portability within frequency range of 825 to 845 MHz.

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was the first generation digital cellular wireless network with a data rate of 19.2 Kbps. The popular Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) and Personal Communication Service (PCS) belong to the second generation wireless systems providing 9.6 Kbps data rate, with dedicated channels.

The worldwide development of wireless communication started in the year 1897 by means of radio due to the revolution in the fields like:

1. RF circuit fabrication
2. Large scale circuit integration
3. Digital circuit design
4. Miniaturization technologies

The impact of mobile communication development is personal communication services. Between 1960 and 1970, Bell Laboratories developed the cellular concepts. An exponential growth was observed in wireless communication. Wireless technologies penetration is witnessed more in our day to day lives as compared to other communications. Revolution in the communication field is due to personal as well as cell communication services. The graph below shows a comparison between mobile communication and other technologies.

Cellular mobile communication technology developed worldwide and emerged slowly. At the same time it has penetrated into the market with high demand for long time than other technologies. A significant growth can be seen in the graph.

Police radio systems used Amplitude Modulation (AM) systems in 1934 for transmission. Vehicular ignition noise was the major problem faced by the early cellular systems. In 1960’s, mobile users were not able to directly dial telephone numbers and majority of them were not linked through PSTN. In wireless communications, there is a worldwide increase in number of consumers. Later a better cellular mobile system using Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) was developed by the Qualcomm, Inc which was then standardized by the respective Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the system was named as Interim Standard (IS-95).

The IS-95 allowed many number of mobile users by Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) technique. The CDMA cellular phone systems were independent of interference problems and provided better call quality than the first generation (1G) AMPS cellular system. Some of the mobile standards of North America, Japan and Europe are listed below.

AMPS - Analog Mobile Phone System.

USDC - US Digital Cellular.

CDPD - Cellular Digital Packet Data.

IS-95 - Interim Standard-95.

JTACS - Japanese Total Access Cellular Systems.

PDC - Pacific Digital Cellular.

NIT - Nippon Telephone and Telegraph Company.

PHS - Personal Handy Phone System.

ETACS - European Total Access Cellular System.

GSM - Global System for Mobile.

CT2 - Cordless Telephone. (CT2)

DECT - Digital European Cordless Telephone.

In the examples of cellular, cordless and PCS systems each one of them has unique advantages and facilities with respect to mobile communication technology. Thus, the transition from analog mobile phones to digital mobile phones was made along a number of years and today digital cellular telephony is very popular worldwide due to its several technical advantages, including cellular coverage capability. Examples of the cellular radio communication.

1. Cellular telephone system.
2. Cordless Telephone (CT) system.
3. Paging system.

These examples are given below.

Cellular System

The cellular telephone system mainly helps to connect a Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and any distant/near user provided the user is available within the corresponding radio range. (A basic cellular system is given below.) The mobile switching center or Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) connects the mobile units (called parties) to the PSTN. Every cell of the particular geographical area has its own base station with a transceiver, an antenna, and also a control circuitry. The base stations are capable of handling many full duplex cellular communications. The mobile switching center can handle at least 5000 telephonic conversation at a time and 100,000 cellular users/subscribers in a network. The cellular communication is made possible between mobile units and the base stations with the help of Common Air Interface (CM) which specifies four channels. They are:

1. Forward Control Channels (FCC)
2. Reverse Control Channels (RCC)
3. Forward Voice Channels (FVC) and
4. Reverse Voice Channels (RVC).

The control channels mentioned here are also termed as setup channels. They will have calls that are in progress but they usually send and receive data messages carrying call initiation and requests for services.

The Forward Control Channels (FCC) are also termed as "BEACONS.' since they continuously broadcast the traffic requests for the mobile units within the cellular system. As soon as the cell phone is switched on it scans the control channels searching for the strongest signal of a base station. When the call progresses the mobile switching center adjusts the power transmitted (PT) of the mobile unit and alters the channel of the mobile unit and also the base station so as to maintain the call quality even though the mobile unit is non-stationary.

The call in progress continues irrespective of the frequency changes from one base to another base station. Such a call continued process without termination is called as 'Hand off technique. As the mobile moves and the signal strength reduces when it is away from its base station of cell, the next base station of the neighboring cell where the mobile enters in will take charge of the call. A relay like process thus takes place within several base stations of the entire cellular system simply to sustain the call developed between two subscribers.

Whenever a mobile originates a call, a request signal will be sent through reverse control channel. By seeing this request the mobile unit will transmit its Mobile Identification Number (MIN), telephone number of its called subscriber, and the Electronic Serial Number (ESN). Then the MSC will check the proper validity of the signals sent by the mobile and responds to its request by connecting the called subscriber through PSTN.

The mobile communication establishes call, maintains it, and terminates as the call is over. It enables communication even though the distance between subscribers is large.

The cordless telephone systems are full duplex systems and it is intended to link a portable handset to the dedicated base station which in turn is connected to a particular dedicated telephone line. For this specific telephone number on Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is used. The first generation (1G) cordless telephone systems came into existence in 1980's. But the distance the system covered was only few meters.

Cordless Telephone (CT) System

Later the second generation (2G) cordless systems the distance was not a problem and the subscribers used cordless systems in mobile environment also. The system was good only if the subscriber availability was within the coverage of base station.

The cordless system also work together with paging system such that the roaming subscriber can first be paged and he or she can respond to it with the help of cordless telephone. In the simple cordless system shown above it illustrates that the cordless handset is linked to PSTN through the base station (fixed port). The cordless handset has a wireless link with its dedicated base station. The cordless systems are divided into two namely Analog Cf and Digital CT. In the early days these cordless systems were analog (Analog CT). They provided analog voice transmissions and enabled mobility within a limited distances. But they had many demerits such as

1. Poor call qualities
2. Interference

These problems urged the need for digital cordless (Digital CT) systems. They provided better voice quality similar to wired telephone system. Some of the main criteria of CT2 system are

1. Voice signal is digitized through 32 kb/sec Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) technique.
2. Bit stream compression facility.
3. Final bit stream transmission at a rate of 72 kb/sec through Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK).
4. Immune to errors.
5. Supports data transmissions effectively up to 32 kb/sec.
6. Traffic can be separated with the Time Division Duplex (TDD) access technique.

This CM standard does not provide for the mobility status and the later version CT2 + standard was used for this purpose. The paging systems are communication systems and they can transmit brief messages to subscribers. The message sent may be an alphanumeric message, numeric message or even a voice data. Paging systems also include news headlines, faxes and stock quotations. It may be sent to a particular paging subscriber through the paging system access number with a modem or a telephone keypad. Such a message is called as page.

In a technique called 'simulcasting' the wide paging systems sends a page from each base station simultaneously. The important performance metrics used in decision-making process under hand off situations (mobility management) are listed below.

1. Probability of call blocking
2. Probability of call dropping
3. Probability of call completion
4. Handoff delay
5. Rate of handoff
6. Probability of an incomplete handoff
7. Probability of handoff blocking
8. Interruption time duration
9. Handoff probability.

Strategies used to calculate the instant of handoff are:

1. Relative signal strength method.
2. Relative signal strength with hysteris method.
3. Relative signal strength with threshold method.
4. Prediction techniques.

In a wide area paging system a paging control center is available that connects the MIN to different paging terminals.

Wide Area Paging Systems

Thus paging systems enable communication with subscribers irrespective of their roaming state. But the system requires large transmitter powers in the order of kilowatts and uses only low data rates for providing proper coverage.

There are several functionalities possible with cellular mobile phones as shown above which includes the pager functions too. It is helpful in sending short messages which are highly used by subscribers. The short message or page is sent to a subscriber wherever he is, and it is the main advantage of these system in spite of low data rates and large transmitter power requirements.

Important Terminologies:

1. Cell: It is smallest geographical area considered for cellular mobile communication.
2. Base station (BS): Base station provides functionalities between mobile unit and Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The base station is located in each cell and it links the subscriber mobile unit with the MSC.
3. Cell Splitting: In high cellular traffic regions, a larger cell is divided into smaller cells to have complete radio coverage.
4. Handoff: When mobile unit moves from one cell to another cell the call in progress will be handed over form one base transceiver to the base transceiver of the new cell where the mobile unit enters so that the call in progress is not disturbed and such a process is called as “Handoff”.
5. Cell sectoring: A cell can be divided into many sectors. For example, from 3 sectors to 6 sectors in a hexagonal cell. The directional antenna should focus on each sector.
6. Umbrella cell pattern: A single large cell (Macro cell) consists of many small cells (Micro cells) and there will be interaction between the micro and macro cells.
7. Control Channel: They are used for necessary exchange of information related to setting up and establishing cell base stations and the mobile units.
8. Traffic Channels: They are used for carrying data or voice connections between different users.
9. Frequency Reuse: It is a concept followed in cellular communication for efficient spectrum utilization. The same carrier frequency is reused by many cells in a cellular cluster and it is known as 'frequency reuse scheme.
10. Fading: Fading is an effect in mobile radio propagation. It is common in multipath mobile signaling environment.
11. Mobile Telecommunication Switching Office/Mobile Switching Center (MTSO/MSO): It is the main unit that connects the base transceiver station and the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) in mobile communication.

Trends in Cellular Radio and Personal Communications

With the help of digital signal processing, RF technology, network intelligence the personal wireless systems have developed worldwide and provide many number of services to subscribers in their unique way. The Personal Communication Services (PCS) initiated in the United Kingdom and the frequency spectrum allotted was in the range 1800 MHz. It focused on developing Personal Communication Networking (PCN).

The advantage of PCN is that the subscriber can receive or make a call irrespective of the roaming status. The Personal Communication Systems (PCS) includes several network features and provides more personalization, than the available cellular systems.

Then the indoor wireless networking got all the importance due to the better network connectivity within the building premises. One such standard is HIPERLAN compatible with indoor wireless standard and it was developed by European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI).

An important worldwide standard known as Future Public Land Mobile Telephone System (FPLMTS) or International Mobile Telecommunication 2000 (INT-2003) emerged in the year 1995 and it was developed by International Telecommunications Union (ITU). This IMT-2000 is a third generation (3G) standard and some of its advantages are:

1. Global compatibility.
2. Integrate paging, cordless and the cellular mobile system and LEO satellites as a single mobile system.
3. Supports multi-function.

It is an excellent digital mobile radio system accepted worldwide. The satellite mobile systems incorporates good paging systems, data collection, global roaming and emergency communications. One such example is network of LEO satellites.

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The fundamental technological developments has thus helped the wireless personal communication systems to grow rapidly and the demand it has is also high. The wireless networking will surely improve further to meet more requirements and additional features in wireless personal communication field.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
Plastid Origin and EvolutionRegulation of Gene Expression in PlastidsPlant Population Genetic StudiesPlastid Genome in Horticultural SpeciesPlastid Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops
2. Conclusion
3. References:

Introduction

Most decisively settled events of true-blue living substance gift area unit people who be a part of plastids that area unit minute living substance organelles in plant cells. Coessential of those plastids area unit chloroplasts passing on inexperienced shade the pigment. these chloroplasts copy themselves self-decision of various elements of the cell and pass away some intrinsic knowledge as deoxyribonucleic acid. as certain for the foremost half plastids area unit transmitted through egg living substance and easily uncommon scarcely any plastids area unit transmitted through deposit. During this means characters hoping on plastids demonstrate living substance gift infrequently freelance of atomic attributes as in mirabilis Jalapa. plastids additionally pass away deoxyribonucleic acid which can contain inborn knowledge.

Collections due to changes area unit besides famous in these plastids. Yet it does not surmise that granule characters don’t seem to be controlled by atomic attributes in lightweight of the route that in an exceedingly course of action of issue plants pale clean individual seeding characters are believed to be beneath the management of atomic qualities that have in like means been mapped each therefore typically.Such instances of atomic gift as well as group action of inexperienced shading in pale clean singular seedlings will not be assessed around there since these do not concern living substance gift.

It is trusted that variety in shade of leaves, branches or entire plants is because of two sorts of plastids (ordinary and mutant pale skinned person). These two kinds of plastids will dependably duplicate and offer ascent to their own sorts because of cell division. Yet, these little girl plastids may not similarly circulate themselves to girl cells. Further, in quickly isolating cells, division of plastids may not keep pace with cell division, so appropriation of plastids to little girl cells may turn into a shot marvel. A cell having the two sorts of plastids may offer ascent to three sorts of cells in particular:

1. Those with primarily ordinary green plastids
2. Those with for the most part mutant pale skinned person plastids
3. Those with the two sorts of plastids.

These three sorts of cells when present as eggs will give three sorts of descendants. Be that as it may, these three sorts of cells won't be recognized as sperms and, in this manner, variegated plant when utilized just as male will give just a single sort of descendants. Plastid, legacy in four o’clock. Even though various cases are currently known in plants, where legacy of plastids is controlled by qualities, there are likewise situations where this character is transmitted through the office of cytoplasm alone. Since real piece of cytoplasm in zygote is gotten from egg, legacy in such cases will be maternal. In four o'clock plant (Mirabilis Jalapa), three sorts of branches concerning event of plastids might be found. These are completely

• green
• completely light green
• variegated.

In such cases, phenotype of offspring will rely on phenotype of branch on which blossoms are pollinated. Inheritance in four o'clock. The focal circle speaks to the kind of branch that produces bloom which are pollinated. Moderate circle speaks to branch from which dust is utilized and external circle demonstrates descendants.

Plastid Origin and Evolution

The evolution date plastayd is based on the endosymbiotic theory shows that plastaydz and munukudyaya born a billion years before the end of the prutubyktyrya ? and independent life ayubytryyrya a snanuayktyrymym object, which increase the plant of the current day Cell The endosymbiotic is alukulr equations , genetic, physical and biological for prokaryotic cells main test of the original organelle test through the parents' review. After three genomes, or host and harmonious combination of genetic entities, with losses of organized jeans jynums, eliminating general, organelles genetic information, the transfer of genes from the nucleus of the organelles, the importation of those products.

Some in vivo experiments were conducted to summarize the movement of DNA into the nucleus through the use of tobacco processing plants. These experiments suggest that during evolution, organic DNA was transferred to the nucleus permanently and was systematically incorporated into the chromosomes. A few experiments were conducted to show how the pl gene becomes functional in the nucleus and the stability of the gene expression after its nuclear insertion. Away from the plastic genome to the nucleus, it is a continuous process at an amazingly high frequency.

Regulation of Gene Expression in Plastids

It is not about the expression of the plastic gene to activate a set of genes to the Astah pl needed to be bio-optical and configuration, but also includes the modification of gene expression during the development of chloroplasts and in response to different environmental factors. In case the expression of the ice gene depends on the nucleus of most structural proteins and regulatory factors, and pathways involved in complex signals, it shows the interdependence and the need to coordinate the expression of genes between these genetic parts cell phones. All steps of ice gene expression are based on nuclear gene expression, since nuclear gene products (ie, proteins) are required to copy, process, translate, modify after translation, rotate the proteins to PL Astah..This complex interaction between genome and genome organic (plastome) play an important role in the cells of the plant that control all metabolism.

In addition, the genome organic and nuclear cells are a combination of integrated and integrated celluloid. This involves the interaction of the cell genomes (such as the nuclear gene of the nuclear gene) on the lack of speciation in the functional interaction between the genetically modified organisms of the population. The interaction between the failure of the nuclear power of the geneticists and the geneticists can lead to a lack of genetic mutations that affect Alnslat's hybrid or emotioning hybrid or sexual orientation that directly affect the survival of plants on disorder natural environment. Because of its low weight and a small number of genetic conditions, genomas-plasmid coordination is a valuable tool to check for the reasons for dissatisfaction.

Plant Population Genetic Studies

Plasmid, which differs from the most common chromosomes, cannot normally be inherited. Genital herpes With male and female inheritance, the heritage of mothers is normal, although it is estimated that nearly 20% of seed cassettes indicate the possibility of append aging the child. Research has shown that many types of father (most participants) or patterns of inheritance in inheritance. This unusual system allows the birth of diversity to weigh the seeds and creams to move to the genetic structure of natural persons as opposed to the nuclear deterrent.

Effective genetic population size is a parameter influenced by the mode of inheritance. The haploid nature of chloroplast genome is related to its reduced genetic variation. Since the effective population size of a haploid genome is 1/4 in dioecious plants and 1/2 in monoecious plants of the nuclear genome, coalescence times and time to fixation of chloroplast DNA haplotypes within a population are shorter than in diploid genomes .Moreover, different plastid genes evolve at different rates, allowing measuring evolutionary distance at many taxonomy levels This low evolving rate along with the absence of recombination, uniparentally inherited nature in most plant species perceived in plastid genome may greatly facilitate the use of plastid DNA markers in plant population genetic studies .

Plastid Genome in Horticultural Species

In general, land plant chloroplast genomes are mostly conserved and contain basically two groups of genes. The first group comprises components for the photosynthetic machinery – photosystem I (PSI), photosystem II (PSII), the cytochrome b6/f complex and the ATP synthase. The second group includes the genes required for the genetic system of plastids – subunits of an RNA polymerase, rRNAs, tRNAs, and ribosomal proteins. The tobacco plastid genome, for example, consists of 155,943 bp and contains a pair of inverted repeat regions (IRA and IRB) separated by a small (SSC) and a large (LSC) single copy region PCR-amplified eight Pinus plastid genomes and adapted multiplex sequencing-by-synthesis (MSBS) to simultaneously sequence multiple plastid genomes using the Illumina Genome Analyzer (Illumina Inc., San Diego, CA, USA). The use of the PCR-based methods to amplify overlapping fragments from conserved gene loci in plastid genomes is time consuming and can be more difficult to implement considering that gene organization differs among plants. Demonstrated a suitable alternative approach, isolating chloroplasts and then using the capacity of high-throughput sequencer Illumina Genome Analyzer II to obtain purified and complete plastid sequences. This technique allowed the obtainment of reads sequence easy to assemble for building the complete plastid genome map.

Comparisons of chloroplast genome organization between Solanum lycopersicum and Solanum bulbocastanum showed that, at gene order, these genomes are identical, and this conservation extends to more distantly related genera (tobacco and Atropa) of Solanaceae. These authors also analyzed repeated sequences in Solanaceae chloroplast genomes, revealing 42 groups of repeats shared among various members of the family. In addition, 37 of these 42 repeats are found in all four genomes examined, occurring in the same location, either in genes, introns or within intergenic spacers, suggesting a high level of conservation of repeat structure. In the same way reported that the complete sequence of Solanum tuberosum chloroplast genome revealed extensive similarity to six Solanaceae species in terms of the gene content and structure, suggesting a common chloroplast evolutionary lineage within Solanaceae.

Plastid Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops

The plastid genome genetic engineering of crop plants is an attractive platform for biotechnologists to increase characteristics of interest for agriculture and horticulture. This technology offers several exceptional features and advantages when compared with nuclear transformation, among which can be included high transgene expression levels with accumulation of foreign proteins up to >70% of the total soluble cellular protein, capacity for multigene stacking in operons in a single genetic transformation event , precise transgene integration via homologous recombination, absence of epigenetic effects or gene silencingand exclusion of transgenes transmission by pollen due to maternal inheritance of plastids in most angiosperms . The plastid transformation vector design and the transgene insertion via two homologous recombination events into the plastid genome are illustrated.

The application of plastid transformation technology in tomato was target to metabolic engineering of plastid pigments. The first successful example showed the feasibility to engineer a nutritionally important metabolic human nutrient in non-green plastids. Overexpressed the enzyme lycopene ?-cyclase from the daffodil (Narcissus pseudo narcissus) and observed an increase up to 50% in provitamin A content in tomato fruits (an important antioxidant and essential vitamin for human nutrition), which changed the color from red to orange due to the conversion of lycopene into ?-carotene. Another example in tomato chloroplasts and chromoplasts was the increase of tocochromanol, which provides tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E), in a complex and successful transcription and translation strategy of a multigene operon containing three genes related to tocochromanol biosynthesis. The tomato transplastomic plants showed an increase of up to 10-fold in total tocochromanol accumulation.

Conclusion

Moreover, the improvement of tissue culture system for horticultural crops would help to spread this technology to several species which plastid transformation was not reached at the moment. The regeneration capacity of the tissues is still the bottleneck for a large number of species, given the fact that tobacco has become the model species for plastid transformation due to its high capacity for in vitroregeneration.

Due to the high potential and environment-friendly characteristics of plastid engineering, the knowledge acquired during the last two decades about this technology, and the enormous field to be explored in horticultural crops, plastid genomic and transformation constitute a high valuable tool to add new traits and increase the marker value of commercial crops. Moreover, plastid transformation is already safer than nuclear transformation due to exceptionally maternal inheritance of plastids in most angiosperms and lack of dissemination of transgenes via pollen, avoiding contamination of natural germoplasm resources. In addition, horticultural crops can be maintained in closed greenhouse worldwide by using of soil-containing pots or hydroponic systems which can enhance security of transgenic plants, without transgene flux, for several commercial applications.

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Finally, plastid genome sequencing is an essential tool for several applications related to plant science. The first knowledge about plastid genome was the starting point to elucidate many processes related to plastid gene function, expression machinery, evolution and transfer of genes to other genetic cellular compartments as mitochondria and the nucleus. This gain of knowledge in last three decades, from the first plastid genome sequenced to present day, makes the plastid genome the best studied genetic compartment of the plant cell. The improvement of chloroplast isolation and the evolution of technology of genome sequencing will make plastid genome sequencing routine in many laboratories and will certainly contribute to unveil several unknown questions about plant cell genetic of families/species that no information about plastid genome is available.

References:

1. Plastid inheritance : variegation in plants, Available at:https://biocyclopedia.com/index/genetics/maternal_effects_and_cytoplasmic_inheritance/plastid_inheritance_variegation_in_plants.php (Accessed: 26th September 2018).
2. (2018) Plastid inheritance and importance , Availableat: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4520007/#B255 (Accessed: 26th September 2018).
3. Alkatib S., Scharff L. B., Rogalski M., Fleischmann T. T., Matthes A., Seeger S., et al. (2012). The conributions of wobbling and superwobbling to the reading of the genetic code. PLoS Genet.8:e1003076 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003076.
4. Angioi S. A., Desiderio F., Rau D., Bitocchi E., Attene G., Papa R. (2009a). Development and use of chloroplast microsatellites in Phaseolus spp. and other legumes. Plant Biol. (Stuttg). 11 598–612. 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2008.00143.x

Two revolutions of the 18th century have created the way governments exist today. French Revolution inspired the idea of Nation-State with monopoly sovereignty and American Revolution to materialize the idea of federal form of government with shared and popular negotiated divided sovereignty between and among the federal government and constituent units. Federalism is the mode of political association and organization that unites separate polities within a more comprehensive political system in such a way as to allow each to maintain its own fundamental political integrity. Political science has identified three basic ways in which polities come into existence: conquest, organic development and covenant. Direct manifestation of conquest is when a conqueror gains control of a land or people and in subsidiary way revolutionary conquest of an existing state, a coup d’état or conquering a market and organizing control through corporate means. This way of organizing a polity produces hierarchical structures of governance which are ruled in an authoritarian way.

Organic evolution of polities involves development from its beginning in families, tribes, and villages to larger polities. These polities tend to produce a single centre organized in one or several ways. The third type of polities are based on Covenant emphasize the deliberate coming together of humans as equals to establish self and shared rule. The polities founded by covenant are essentially federal in character. This paper analyses the historical development of Indian federalism and the innovations worked out by the founding fathers of Indian constitution and the developments after that which were necessary to maintain unity and integrity of the nation.

The development of federal polity in India has been a product of devolution of powers to the British provinces by the central government to ensure “provincial autonomy” under the Government of India Act, 1919 and 1935. It further evolved as part of the Cabinet Mission Plan and in final shape it emerged as a part of the present constitution. Though India’s democratic federal system is new, its pattern of socio-cultural federalism is age-old with distinctive heritage of rich diversity. In its latent form this socio-cultural federalism has not only survived, but has matured by the passage of time despite the vicissitudes of India’s political destiny. Developing from its embryonic form since the Vedic age, it continued to acquire new forms and substance in the ancient period (during the rise and fall of Mauryas, the Satavahanas, the Sakas, the Kushans, the Guptas, the Rashtrtakutas, the Chalukyas, the Cholas and the Pandyas etc.) and came to acquire distinct characteristics by the medieval times, in the span covered by the hegemony of the Delhi Sultanate, the Bahmanis of the Deccan and the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Subhas and Sarkars considerably coincided with socio-cultural identities. This normal and rational process of development of well-knit socio-cultural communities was only disrupted by the policy of annexation and arbitrary formations of sprawling provinces (like the original United Provinces of Agra and Oudh: a gigantic amalgamation of disparate regions) under the British colonial rule. Even in the hoary past, India’s federal socio-cultural pattern was recorded with amazing clarity in Puranas. Particularly Vishnu and Vayu-Purana throw light on the primordial mosaic of India’s socio-cultural diversity. Bharatvarsha (covering the territory today comprising India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afganistan) is repudiated to have in its fold 165 Janapadas, of which probably about 120 may be located within the confines of the present day Republic of India. These Janapadas were the territorial communities identified by an admixture of ethnicity, dialect, social customs, geographical location and political characteristic. Western writers on India, however, have tended, by and large, to picture India as a continent with a bewildering variety of races, creeds and languages incapable of being fused into a nation but Jawaharlal Nehru has rightly observed that “the diversity of India is tremendous; it is obvious; it lies on the surface and anybody can see it. What superficial observers from abroad have often found more difficult to perceive is the unity that underlies India’s variety. More careful observers have, of course, shown a commendable awareness of the fact that there is “an essential unity in diversity in the Indian peninsula regarded as a whole”.

India may be said have always possessed the natural “imperatives” of federalism. The structure of the Mauryan Empire- “a feudal-federal state’- provided the archetype of a federal polity. In Medieval period the Mughals attempted to create a centralized administration in India was partially successful but they wisely respected provincial feelings and interfered little in the day to day life of the Provinces. The British, started with marked Unitarian predilections but were compelled gradually to “federalize” the Centre-Province relations. Centralization, in short, was found to be “against the genius of the race’. During the British period, though in the beginning from Regulating Act of 1773 till Charter Act of 1833 there was policy of increasing centralization adopted by them but the new social and political factors reinforced the effects of the natural imperatives of federalism which were evident after the Mutiny of 1857 in the Indian Councils Act of 1892. This federalization was further developed in the subsequent acts and culminated in the Constitution of 1950. Several jurists, political scientists, public men have questioned the federal character of the Indian constitution and have sought to pin it such labels as “quasi-federal’, “fedro-unitary’, or “a decentralized federal state’, due to the wide endowment of authority vested in the Centre especially during the Proclamation of Emergency and the incompatibility of the Article 3 of the Constitution of India with the federal principle. Though the incompatibility of the Article 3 may be conceded but it is necessary to take into account the extraordinary circumstances in which a flexible procedure for the territorial reorganization of the states had to be incorporated in the constitution, however, the emergency power is not quite as unique a feature of the Indian federal system as it is made out to be Judicial interpretation of “war power” in the United States has given to the federal government there an amplitude of authority hardly less sweeping than the emergency powers of the Centre in India. There exist divergent views whether the Indian Federalism meet adequately the needs of national solidarity and economic development without rendering state autonomy nugatory, critics complain that the constitution has not worked according to the intentions of the framers and the powers of the Centre have been augmented to such an extent that India has virtually become a decentralized unitary state. They point out the impact of national planning which is alleged to have suppressed the federalism and to the growing dependencies of the States on the Centre.

Historical legacies are undoubtedly important in the shaping of any polity. Indian federalism is an outcome of its history and the way in which British unified the country under their rule and later the way in which the territories under the direct control of the British and various principalities were integrated in the Indian Union. Traumatized by the unprecedented horrors and dislocation of partition, the Constituent Assembly of India devised a system which seemed most suited to the needs of the time and requirements of a federal society. Owing to India’s multilingual, multiethnic, multicultural, socio-economic diversities and historical legacy, asymmetry in status and powers among states was reluctantly accepted by the founding fathers in the 1950 Constitution.

Indian Constitution started with the assumption of asymmetry in the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir in Article 370 and innovative constitutional arrangements for autonomous district councils for the tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram under the Sixth Schedule, and tribal population of the nine other states under Fifth Schedule. But beginning with the Thirteenth Amendment, 1962, asymmetrical provisions were gradually added to the constitution mainly as clauses to Article 371 and term “Special Provision” was added to the title of part XXI of the Constitution which previously read “Temporary and Transitional Provisions”. Special Provisions with respect to the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were added by the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956. Similarly Article 371A was inserted by the Constitution (13th Amendment) Act, 1962 to provide special provisions with respect to the state of Nagaland. Article 371B by the Constitution (22nd Amendment) Act, 1969 was included with respect to the State of Assam. Article 371C with respect to the State of Manipur was inserted by the Constitution (27th Amentment) Act, 1971. Article 371D and E was added with respect to the State of Andhra Predesh, by 32nd Amendment Act, 1973. Article 371F was added with respect to the State of Sikkim, by the Constitution (36th Amendment) Act, 1975. Article 371G was included with respect to the State of Mizoram, by 53rd Amendment Act, 1986 and Article 371H was inserted with respect of the State of Arunachal Pradesh, by 55th Amendment Act, 1986. Lastly special provision with respect to the State of Goa was added in the Constitution by the Constitution (56th Amendment) Act, 1987 under Article 371-I.

Article 371A which provides for special provisions for Nagaland allowing for non-applicability of acts of parliament to the state unless decided otherwise by the state legislative assembly in respect of religion or social practices of Nagas, Naga customary law and procedure and criminal justice involving decisions according to Naga customary law, and ownership and transfer of land and its resources. The Governor was also given special responsibilities with respect to law and order in the state and for the administration of Teunsang district. The Fourteenth Amendment, 1962, enabled the Union Territories of Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Goa, Daman and Diu, and Pondicherry to have Legislature and Council of Ministers on the same pattern as in some of the Part C States before 1956. In 1969, an autonomous state of Meghalaya was created within Assam comprising certain areas specified in the Sixth Schedule by the Twenty-Second Amendment by inserting Article 371 B, 244 A and l(A) in Article 275. The experiment was, however, short-lived; Meghalaya was made a full-fledged state in 1972. Another, even more short-lived, experiment began in 1974 when Sikkim was made an associate state by introducing a Tenth Schedule into the Constitution which detailed the terms and conditions of its association. In 1975, full statehood was granted to Sikkim by the Thirty-Sixth Amendment which also inserted certain special provisions for the state in the form of Article 371F.

Special provisions have also been made for Manipur in the form of Article 371 C inserted by the Twenty-Seventh Amendment, 1971, which provides for a committee in the Legislative Assembly to look after the interests of the hill areas of that state. Article 371 G looks after the special circumstances of Mizoram and was added by the Fifty-Third Amendment when it attained statehood in 1986.

These provisions together can be said to constitute a special status for the Northeastern states. However, in case of Andhra Pradesh also special provisions in the form of Articles 371D and 371E were introduced by the Thirty-Third Amendment, 1974, in order to solve the Andhra-Telengana issue. They provide for equitable distribution of (education and employment opportunities between the two regions. Article 371E provides for the establishment of a central university in Andhra Pradesh. The Constitution also provides for asymmetry below the state level (between districts or regions) through such provision as the Sixth Schedule (for North-Eastern states) and the Fifth Schedule for other states.

The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India made all the Hill Districts of erstwhile Assam autonomous with respective District Councils. Such autonomies were given to the tribal people of Assam in social, religious, cultural and economic fields. The tribal areas which were put under the Sixth Schedule were declared autonomous region and separate regional councils were provided for them.

The functioning of federalism in a country like India makes development of many asymmetrical features inevitable despite strong pressures for centralization and homogenization. However, recognition of asymmetry in many cases is not without problems. Asymmetry connotes an uneven distribution of power along a common axis. Federalism is to do with the institutionalization of particular arrangements, and asymmetric federalism is in essence a calibrated institutional response to the diversity of constituent units, permitting variations. While there was a unitary bias in the original design of the Indian federalism, a remarkable degree of flexibility and pragmatism has been worked into it. From the early days, in India there was marked absence of homogeneity among the federating units. For instance, the princely states had a separate political entity, and had little in common with the British provinces.

The people of North-East India, especially the tribal people, differ from the plains people of India in respect of culture, customary behavior, faith and race. Unprotected free interaction between plain and hill people has resulted into exploitative relationship structures between plain and hill peoples. The comparative backwardness, simplicity of the tribes invariably resulted into a relationship which was against their interests. On the demand of leaders of these tribal groups the colonial government brought different measures of protection for these people and their homeland. Different mechanisms were introduced by the colonial regime to control and regulate access and interaction of plain people to these areas to maintain peace and security and stability in these border regions. To keep them satisfied and pacified the extension of the institution of private property and uniform all India civil and criminal laws were made exceptional not routine as in the case of rest of India. Institutions of autonomous self government in the sphere of socio-cultural affairs were created which protected their traditional pattern of community ownership of land its resources and their customary laws.

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In these conditions, the framers of the constitution had to bring about innovations to accommodate all the units of the federation. The framers of Indian constitution recognized the virtues of ’asymmetry” or asymmetric federalism in the context of bringing about and maintaining the union, particularly in integrating states and people who had enjoyed considerable amount of autonomy under the British. Thus we find in India there are as many as 10 States apart from Jammu and Kashmir out of 28 which enjoy some special privileges. No doubt there were political, economic and social compulsions in each case for granting special status; but it is a unique way of dealing with the problem. India is Union of States and the degree of unity within the country varies from state to state. The nature and scope of the two different types of special status is different not in contents but also in category. So to grant special status to a state within Union of India is not an exception rather a matter of policy in case of India based upon innovation and pragmatism.

In "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man", Stephan Dedalus's evolving image of the female derives from his shifting and inconsistent perspective on religion and spirituality. Whichever religious belief he holds during each adolescent phase is projected onto the female of the text and she serves as a tangible object of his abstract convictions. Sex, salvation and purity are three of Stephen's most frequent ascriptions to women. In discovering these attributes in prostitutes, the Virgin Mary and the bird-like girl Stephen exploits women as sources of spiritual elevation, religious redemption and freedom. Stephen's altering idolization of each female figure chronologically documents his progression from a conservative religious devotee to an independent and spiritually resourceful artist.

Throughout Stephen's childhood the significance of Catholicism is impressed upon him in a manner comparable to teaching a child table manners. They were fundamental edifications practiced by every Irishman devoted to the 'true' Ireland; those dedicated to the rebellion of Protestantism. Raised with religion as and an additional appendage to his body, Stephen never questioned the validity of the existence or motivations of God. He attends academically Catholic institutions, studies educational instructions of priests and prays at mass without query. While Stephen's childhood is saturated with the influences of Catholicism his sensitive and intellectual mind are fully aware of the national and political tension revolving around Irish politics and religion. The Christmas dinner scene disturbs young Stephen, and as he enters puberty he begins to understand how socially controlling religion was. Religion was the reason why he was sent to these Catholic schools where he experienced abuse by priests while Mr. Dedalus's while political support for Parnell was the source of the devout Dante's meltdown at the Christmas dinner. Distraught and suffocated by a religion that was "reshaping the world about him into a vision of squalor and insincerity" ("A Portrait of the Artist as A Young Man" ...pg 46), Stephan finds himself simultaneously hungering for intellectual and physical answers for his confusion---his young 16 year old hormones harbored a craving for sensual satisfaction of the body.

In Chapter 2, subsequent to experiencing familial humility and shame, Stephen discovers himself wandering down dark and damp Dubliner streets searching for the answers that his befuddled and randy body demanded. Stephen's wanderings led him to stand before the rawest symbol of sex---a young feminine prostitute. Prostitutes are considered the epitome of female sexuality since they sell their bodies in order to provide their means of living, essentially saturating every economic aspect of their lives with sin. They were the ultimate symbol of Catholic rebellion and Stephen considers the prostitute's blatant defiance of her Christian community intoxicating. Stephen views the young prostitute as the release to the "cry that he had strangled for so long in his throat" and her sex as a method for the "vehicle of a vague speech" (Portrait...pg.70), a vague speech that liberate Stephen free from the restrictive sermons of religious life.

Stephen's keenly sensitive mind does not allow him to consider the sexual act with the prostitute as purely physical. An orgasm to Stephen is a spiritual experience that transports him from the harsh reality of poverty and hormonal confusion into a world of pleasurable fireworks. Stephan still cannot part with the Catholic notion of the adored and heavenly Virgin Mary, even though the prostitute is an obvious contradiction of the Virgin Mary. His description of the prostitute and her room is heavenly---the prostitute wears a long flowing gown and her room is lit softly by candles (candles were often found to be the source of soft light in churches). The prostitute also has a doll in the bedroom, a symbol of innocence and child-like purity. Similar to how one would surrender to the power of God, Stephan allows her to bow his head in the position prayer, and he finds himself "surrendering himself to her, body and mind, conscious of nothing in the world" (Portrait. . .pg. 71), as if he is being spiritually transported to another spiritual realm. Stephen continues his sordid affairs with prostitutes and does not cease until he hears Father Arnell's sermon regarding hellish damnation of those who participate in unwholesome pleasures of the flesh and mind. Scared witless by the notion that his "human spirit will be sobbing and sighing, gurgling and rattling," due to his body "feeding the mass of its creeping worms and to be devoured by scuttling plump-bellied rats" (Portrait...pg. 79), Stephen vows to seek a life of Christian redemption. In efforts to reverse the effects of his sins, Stephen practices extreme mortification of his senses, and subsequently seeks advice from a priest in confession. The priest advises Stephen to "pray to our mother Mary to help you. Pray to Our Blessed Lady when that (meaning sordid sex) comes into your mind" (Portrait. . .pg. 103). Coupled with his new practice of mortification and the priest's counsel, Stephen discovers himself devoutly praying to the Virgin Mary obsessively, revering her as the idyllic image of virginal purity and beauty. Previously Stephen found the prostitute's disparate image of the Virgin Mary intoxicating; he now worships the purity of the Virgin Mary with the intention of eradicating the prostitute's fleshy scent from his skin.

Stephen's fascination with the virginal female includes Emma--- a living, breathing reincarnation of Mary. The fact that Stephen has never spoken to her increases her purity level. By never having touched or spoken to Emma Stephen is unable to have 'soiled' her therefore he never compromises her heavenly representative of Mary on Earth. Additionally Stephen couples Emma and the Virgin Mary in his thoughts of female wholesomeness. He imagines himself standing, "near Emma in a wide land, humbly in tears, bent and kissed the elbow of her sleeve" (Portrait... pg. 82) in attempts of gaining her forgiveness for previously harboring brutishly lusty thoughts of her. In this imagined scene the Virgin Mary unites the two by the hand, in essence granting Emma's forgiveness as well as her own onto Stephan. Stephen's passionate commitment and idolatry to the Virgin Mary exemplifies his ability to reconfigure the image and role of the female form depending on the phase of his life. Stephen's projection of women will change yet again as he unearths his desire to express his artistic and intellectual independence.

As a reward for his unfettered devoutness to the church Stephan is offered a position in the priesthood. However initially attracted to the prestige associated with the position, Stephen increasingly discovers himself offended by the notion of being constrained by another's rules---after all, although previously bounded to the notions of mortification, they were his very own standards, imposed rules determined by him and no other. He comes to realize that the "chill and order of the life repelled him" ( Portrait. . .pg. 115), and with a sound resolution he claims, "He was destined to learn his own wisdom apart from others or to learn the wisdom of others himself wandering the snares of the world" (Portrait... pg. 116).

Subsequent to his newfound and exuberant proclamations of following in the steps of the great Greek artist Daedalus, Stephen stumbles upon a young female wading in the beach water. Stephan's powerful imagination, freshly filled with images of the flying Daedalus, imagines the girl as a bird. The bird-like girl symbolizes the notion of an unfettered natural beauty, unregulated by religion. Stephan stands frozen and amazed by her naturalness and independence. It is interesting to note that Stephan chose a woman to project his newfound independence--- why not merely project his current exuberance onto an actual bird? It is important for Stephan to ascribe his emotional and intellectual ideals onto women because they serve as the medium in which religious and spiritual symbolism takes place on earth. They are easily accessible in terms of touch and visualization, and Stephen is able to convert them to another form (whereas a bird is already a bird and therefore is less desirous in terms of transformation). It is Stephen's imagination at this time that creates and adapts the sighting of the bird-like girl into a monumentally spiritual affair. In this moment he reveals the inspiration as a sign to, "To live, to err, to fall, to triumph, to recreate life out of life! A wild angel had appeared to him, the angel of mortal youth and beauty..." (Portrait... pg. 123).

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By the end of the text the boy who was once ruled by religion and social pressure has embarked on a deeply spiritual and sensual journey of introspection. In this journey across the sea the women in A Portrait of the Artist as A Young Man serve as landmarks in Stephen's adolescence. Each female symbol is a projection of the varying phase in Stephen's search for himself. All three women, the prostitutes, the Virgin Mary and the bird-like girl are maps of Stephan's desired destination---each one mapping deriving their directions from his mind. Stephen's phase, like his projection of women changed radically depending on the external influences of religion, and ultimately the influences of his artistic mind and soul.