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Eden is at the very centre of all major events in Paradise Lost Book IX, and Milton proves keen to exploit its potency as a setting. The Garden represents both the glory of God’s Creation and the fragility of its existence. Milton juxtaposes Satan’s address to the Earth with Adam and Eve’s praising of it to show how invigorating the expression of God’s love can be. But in doing so, he also lays the foundations for the Fall by exposing Eve’s complacency and unguarded state in paradise.
Get original essayMilton draws attention to the insatiable beauty of Eden through the eyes of Satan, perhaps the least predictable admirer of God’s Creation. This enhances every compliment Satan pays to the Earth and suggests that Eden’s perfection is impossible to ignore. But Milton highlights how Satan has become so intoxicated by Eden’s apparent flawlessness, that he confuses his theology and describes Earth as a “Terrestrial heaven.” In Genesis, God is said to have constructed the heavens and the Earth simultaneously. Therefore, to claim God created Earth having learned from the mistakes he made in Heaven would be theologically incorrect. Moreover, Satan’s declaration that Earth is a “seat worthier of gods” has no foundations in the Bible. Evans makes the point that this could be a deliberate attempt by Satan to console himself over the loss of Heaven; he has to ‘inflate [its] value.’ Rather than accept the divine hierarchy God has put in place, he prefers to perceive other realms as merely “officious lamps” which serve the purpose of lighting up Eden. However, Milton quickly reveals Satan’s true feelings regarding his new home. His lush depiction of the pastoral scene with its “valley, rivers, woods and plains” comes to an abrupt halt in the form of a “but.” Eden brings Satan’s impossible internal conflict to the surface, for while he can observe its brilliance, he cannot appreciate it. The juxtaposition of “Pleasures about me” and “Torment within me” encapsulates how his declaration of “war Irreconcilable ” has condemned him to eternal suffering. He can observe divine order all around him and yet his regret results in a strong desire to destroy “What he Almighty styled, six nights and days/ Continued making.” His hunger for revenge is such that he even places the Fall in the past. Satan’s encounter with Eden is therefore crucial in understanding why Satan feels compelled to corrupt mankind.
The fecundity of Eden and man’s duty to control it is a concept Milton derives from Genesis 2:15. In the Bible, God assigns Adam the task of “stewarding” the Earth, respecting Creation whilst ruling over it. This is resonant of the Protestant work ethic that one can only be worth something if one earns respect from God. Milton posits the beginning of this process with a pastoral scene of ‘morning praise’ in Eden. A hierarchy on Earth develops, as while the “human pair” undertakes “vocal worship”, the other animals are limited to “silent praise” and the “humid flowers” merely offer up their “incense.” Although Milton portrays God as responsive to His Creation in that “His nostrils fill/ With grateful smell,” there is a sense that all living things have a duty to praise His work. Earth is depicted as a “great altar” constructed for the sole purpose of paying tribute to its Creator.
But Milton’s God also expects dedication in the form of physical labour. Thus, immediately afterwards, Adam and Eve are seen obediently tending to the Garden. Their pastime serves as a catalyst for Eve’s imminent departure. In her speech to Adam, Eve declares that Eden is a self-defeating garden, in that the workload “grows/ Luxurious by restraint”, meaning it seems to grow back twice as quickly every time they cut it back. Milton uses mimesis in the line “Lop overgrown, or prune, or prop, or bind” to emphasise how the task seems to build up indefinitely. Eve makes the practical suggestion that they “divide their labours” and thereby avoid the “Casual discourse” which slows down their progress. But in his reply, Adam tries to appeal to her more loving side rather than her reason. His emotive apostrophe of “associate soul, to me beyond/ Compare all living creatures dear” sets Eve firmly on a pedestal. He then repeats words such as “joint”, “joined” and “conjugal” to express the importance of their togetherness. He even overemphasises the impact of Eve seeking her own employment by describing her as “severed from me”, implying she and he are of one flesh. He further attempts to persuade Eve against leaving him by painting a dark picture of Satan, who the two know to have recently entered the Garden. Milton uses caesura to stress the “Despairing” of their “malicious foe” and how precarious it would be to encounter him at such a time.
Eve, however, is as skilled as Adam when it comes to the powers of persuasion. She similarly flatters him with an elaborate apostrophe -- “Offspring of heaven and earth, and all earth’s lord” -- to communicate the degree to which she respects his authority. But she reacts with hostility to what she perceives as a criticism of her character -- namely that he could “doubt” her “firmness” and therefore worry about Satan’s having the power to corrupt her. Evans highlights how Eve’s speech becomes clumsy and heavily alliterated in order to convey her agitation. She also makes the fatal mistake of assuming that she and Adam are “not capable of death or pain”, which is proven false after the Fall. Adam tries to reassure Eve that he does not doubt her ability to resist temptation, but rather he fears “the offered wrong” that Satan may present. The temptation in itself could inflict “dishonour foul” on Eve. He makes the stark contrast between “thee alone” with “us both” to underscore how superior they are as a ‘united front’ against Satan. While Eve has become overly comfortable in the serenity of Eden, Adam is keen to remain on guard for any potential danger.
In his description of Eve’s departure from Adam, Milton draws parallels between her and ‘fallen’ female characters in classical literature. Milton thus builds up a distinctly ominous atmosphere, in which it is implied that Eve will soon ‘fall’ herself. Evans notes how “the comparisons become progressively more sinister” as Eve travels further and further away from her husband. First, she is likened to a semi-divine “wood-nymph” such as “Óread or Drýad”, who innocently resided in mountains and woods. Then, Milton makes a slightly ambiguous reference to Eve as a member of “Délia’s train.” Eve is a symbol of chastity, but lacks the “bow and quiver” which would successfully serve her as a huntress. Moreover, we know that Satan is actively seeking to hunt her and bring about the Fall. A sense of unease therefore starts to develop. Milton is far more explicit in his citation of “Pomóna” -- whose virginity a disguised god stole in an orchard -- and her fleeing from “Vertúmmus”. Milton later predicts an “ambush hid among sweet flowers and shades” as if to warn Eve of the dangers she will face. But the desperate tone he adopts prior to this in “O much deceived, much failing, hapless Eve,/ Of thy presumed return! event perverse!” suggests that his warning is in vain -- thereby even further heightening the drama. The “sweet repast” and “sound repose” to which Eve has grown so accustomed will soon become distant memories. Milton emphasises the “hellish rancour imminent” which is now plaguing Eden and casting a shadow over its beauty. His final line uses repetition to underscore the finality of any attempt to corrupt Eve. So the sense of security God has generated in Eden only masks Satan’s presence within it.
Milton continues to experiment with pastoral conventions in his portrayal of Eve alone in the Garden. Through Satan's eyes, Milton is able to thoroughly explore Eve’s voluptuousness in her pre-lapsarian state, as well as her inherent vulnerability. In contrast to the “black mist” which encloses Satan earlier in Book XI, Eve is spotted elegantly “Veiled in a cloud of fragrance.” The bold colours of “purple”, “azúre” and “gold” which surround her seem to captivate Satan and spur his lust. He cannot help but admire “her heavenly form", and for a moment he becomes “Stupidly good”, as he did when we first saw him address Eden. Eve is depicted as the ideal woman, in that her “graceful innocence” can intoxicate even the most “evil” of creatures. The stressed iambic line in “of enmity disarmed, / Of guile, of hate, of envy, of revenge” underlines how Eve’s innocence penetrates Satan’s harsh exterior.
But Milton has previously used the metaphor of a flower to suggest that, despite her handsome looks, Eve is crucially weak and defenceless. Moreover, without her husband Adam she is “unsupported” both emotionally and physically. Similarly, Eden would not remain perfect without God’s sustaining it. In any event, Satan’s internal suffering is such that not even Eve can extinguish the “hot hell” which forever burns inside of him. His momentary hesitation turns to “mischief” and he begins his act of temptation.
In his attempt to lure Eve into eating from the tree of knowledge, Satan exploits the sensuality created by pastoral imagery. Milton uses Eden’s natural perfection as a device for inducing “man’s first Disobedience.” Satan’s speech deliberately appeals to the senses in order to bring about a ‘breakdown of reason’ within Eve. He initially captures her imagination by painting the glorious picture of a “goodly tree” with “fairest colours mixed.” Then he explores the luscious smell of its “savoury odour blown” which he likens to the scent of “sweetest fennel or the teats/ Of ewe.” The imagery he employs at this point is extremely potent; a playful “lamb” suggests purity and innocence while the “goat dropping with milk” indicates a complete lack of restrictions within nature. Evans observes how “eating the forbidden fruit [now seems] a natural act”, because Satan has fabricated a delightful backdrop. Thus, Satan’s “sharp desire” becomes Eve’s craving too and her bodily urges (“hunger” and “thirst”) are awakened. Ironically, Milton uses alliteration and caesura to accentuate these cravings as “Powerful persuaders” and yet it is Satan that is really doing the persuading. He continues to adopt loaded language such as “alluring fruit”, “Longing”, “envying”, “Tempting” and “pleasure” to wet Eve’s appetite. Satan is so effective in his description of the tree that his closing attempt at flattery in “Sovereign of creatures, universal dame” is almost unnecessary. While Eden is a source of great torment for Satan, he is still able to use its natural allure as a means of corrupting Eve.
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Get custom essayThus, in Paradise Lost Book IX, Milton prominently establishes mankind’s inner weakness; the inclination to succumb to desire and disrupt natural order. Eden is a symbol of God’s love for humans and yet Milton illustrates how this trust can be easily broken. Eden therefore becomes a monument to the Original Sin and man’s fallible nature.
History has showed human being as different colors of skin with different background stories. Every ethnic group had to deal some sort of bigotry views toward them or their life style. What most don’t do is realize that all of us are one as a whole. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi a pre-eminent political or more of an ideological leader to the Indians in India protested towards the dogmatic views of what he and his fellow brothers and sisters from India were going through with the British. The actions presented were out of how Caucasians treated would others during this era of discrimination.
Get original essayEven though discrimination was present by forms of segregation like in America during the Civil Rights Movement, Gandhi wanted to show the same concept that later Martin Luther King presented in 1960’s. Gandhi’s views of philosophy are deontological. Meaning that by being a deontological philosopher you have to act according to duty. Gandhi’s ideas of nonviolence are to present themselves as Rational Human beings even though they were violently beaten. The Indian people have the right to govern themselves and have the right to sell their products that were taken out of their land and sold back to them. Gandhi’s idea was to do nonviolent protests to prove to the British that the ideas of Western civilization thoughts and industrialization are not worth imitating or transplanting in India.
Gandhi’s first strike to end violence was when he was tossed out of a train traveling in first class compartment reserved for whites only because he was not white, even though he had his ticket reserved for that seat. This was a peak point in his life. He felt enough is enough. He and his fellow Indians had to put a stop to the bias actions that the British are imposing on him and his fellow countrymen. Gandhi imposed that everyone is equal and everyone should do all kinds of jobs. Even be a simple toilet cleaner which is the lowest caste in the Indian traditions (Aharon 2000). This is an example of what Immanuel Kant deontology ethics.
By doing any job field even the lowest of the lows, Gandhi is implying that they should act from duty. By showing that even an Engineer who is taught throughout his educational career mathematical problems and physics concepts can do a simple job that most would reject. If you are not acting from duty, according to Kant, you are unethical. By rejecting a simple job because it disgraces your image as an Engineer you are unethical. If you act from duty in Kant’s perspective you are ethical, meaning if the engineer does the job because others are incline to make the engineer feel guilty for not doing his part, and he goes and does it. That is being unethical. If doing the job because you’re being influenced by others, this is a no to Kant’s philosophy of ethics. Gandhi shows everyone he himself doing toilet cleaning, showing that he, a lawyer, can do a simple job that all should do. Gandhi is acting from duty. This is one way of how Gandhi views are deontological.
Gandhi’s views of nonviolence actions towards the British brought forth many more ideas. One of the ideas brought forth by Gandhi was a march to the Arabian Ocean, known as the Salt March (Gugel 1996). Marching a nonviolent protest is one step further to what Gandhi was teaching for his fellow Indians. To have their rights acknowledged, to have what is theirs is theirs, even though he didn’t emphasize it verbally. By going to the ocean and collecting salt grains, which was illegal to do due to the law imposed by the British, he was justifying his actions as one. He is letting the British know that even though the laws are placed for a purpose to control human kind he wasn’t going to be subject by their laws. He has the right to take it without any action.
This is a hypothetical imperative. Do (A)! Act from (A)! Gandhi is the agent (X) that wants the salt which is object (O). He seeks Object (O) for a purpose to show that the British do not have the right to inflict strict tax on a necessity that some desire (Gugel 1996). This is another argument of Kant’s Deontological ethics. The British at this time were in charge of major salt producing factories that were causing rebellious actions like smuggling salt into India (Aharon 2000). These actions against the Government were deemed inappropriate. But the Indian people felt they were acting from duty and the smuggling was justifies because of the actions that British taxation were unjust and that only British licensed salt factories were the only distributors. Gandhi shows that by taking the grain of salt he is not abiding to the laws because he is showing his actions as just. By doing A and is seeking object O.
Even though Gandhi acted from duty with his nonviolent protest, the British actions brutal beat downs towards him and not fight back was another way of showing his views of being a rational human being. As he tried to claim his rights as a British subject he was abused and mistreated, soon after his fellow Indians were subjected to the same punishment as Gandhi. Gandhi’s views on this part as what Kant would say a principle of Ends. “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means” (Kant 36). By acting as a fellow citizen, and showing that we are one, we treat others the way we would want to be treated. This is one of the main arguments for Gandhi. As the British were in control of India, the Indians were under the same concept as the Americans during the colonization.
They were British subjects, but they were rejected of rights that were meaningful to them as it was to the African American during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960’s. The actions that were imposed by the British were unjust, and they were acting against human kind. The British weren’t treating the Indians with proper respect as abiding British subjects. Gandhi protested nonviolence to show respect for his fellow countrymen a d have the British treat then as their own countrymen. Many of Gandhi’s subjects didn’t like his idea of nonviolence like Lokmanya Tilak. Tilak felt to take action severe to drastic measures needed to be taken. Gandhi convinced the Indians to use his philosophy of non-violence to show that the British were wrong and that they should have their political rights (Aharon 2000). By treating others the way you would want to be treated, you are acting to what Kant is saying, actfrom duty of being a rational human being versus being just a rational animal in Aristotle concept.
By acting as a rational human being and treating others the way we want to be treated didn’t always fit with the religions during that time. Gandhi as a Hindu moved his nation through nonviolence protest. But some fellow Hindu subjects felt that Gandhi was being a traitor by being a middleman between the two religions Muslim and Hindu, as India was trying to get independence. By acting as better Hindu, a Better Muslim, or a better Christian you are acting towards a truthfulness that is the ultimate reality. This is where his ideas come into for nonviolence. By being a better Hindu, Muslim or Christian you are subject to act according to what you believe in.
Whether you believer in the Holy Bible or the Quran, you are subject to follow what is morally right and act according to what Gandhi believed all people to be sons of God (Nosotro 2010). Gandhi is showing that they all should act according to what each believes, and to be a better individual. Straying from your beliefs is not being a rational human being and you are acting unethical. Even though each religion has their view of who is God to them, and whose religion is right, they chose to stay segregated by religion and riot amongst themselves instead of uniting as one and fight for what is more purposefully and morally right, like their Civilian Rights. Many tended to keep to beliefs theirs and forgot to act from duty and acted contrary to duty. This is not what Gandhi is presenting with his views. He wants all to be doing what they ought to do but not for the wrong reason.
Although many subjected themselves to their religion as one and only one, in doing so they made it harder to be a human rational being and try to act from duty. It took years for Gandhi to finally figure out that the actions of the British confirmed to him that he is going to fight for his rights. Kant’s views of Deontological have been in a way implemented into Gandhi’s own philosophical views. Even though he himself wouldn’t state he is a deontologist. He is more of a humanitarian who devotes to the promotion of human welfare and to social reforms. By the actions set forth by him showing that all jobs are just jobs that even the highest class should be doing the simplest most demining jobs like cleaning the toilet, Gandhi is showing we are all equal in value.
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Get custom essayAlso showing that imposing improper taxes on salt and doing illegal acts that would be subject to prosecution he is showing his views leaning more towards deontological views that Kant explains. With equal treatment to everyone and each following their own beliefs of being a better Hindu, Muslim, or Christian he is showing examples of principles of ends and is acting from duty. If we see an individual walking along the highway in a blizzard storm do we, act contrary to duty, act according to duty or act from duty? Either way it is up to you to decide. Gandhi decided that his rights were more meaningful and showed it by acting as rational human being that has let a nation free from a great dominating nation.
Close your eyes and expand your mind: meditation’s effects of neuroplasticity. Waves roll softly over the sand onto your bare feet as you deeply inhale the sweetly salted scent of fresh ocean air. Tension is released from your body as you exhale, inhale, and exhale again, until all tension is released and you are rendered with a fulfilling sense of calm. Continue this deep breathing. Rock back and forth with the rolling of the waves: backward as you inhale and forward as you exhale. Centralize your attention on this motion and only this motion. In the distance you hear the soft calling of seagulls while the glow of the sun warms the sand surrounding you, warming your body throughout. These experiences are noticed, but your attention continues to be focused on the synchronizing of your rocking with the rolling of the waves. As you do this you inhale, exhale, inhale . . .
Get original essayDaniel J. Sigel, award-winning educator and distinguished member of the American Psychiatric Association claims that practicing mindfulness, an aspect of mediation, people can quite literally expand their mind by promoting a neural phenomenon known as neuroplasticity (Siegel, 2010). Neuroplasticity, according to Richard Widdett in his honors thesis on, “Neuroplasticity and Mindfulness Meditation,” is a phenomenon that occurs throughout a person’s lifetime; the brain changes in shape as a result of the birth of neurons and neural connections following external, or even internal experiences (Widdett, 2014). Experiences, such as these, facilitate changes within the physical structures within the brain thus, altering or enhancing the function of those structures. Consequently, just as there is a plethora of different experiences in which an individual may engage, there are an equal number or greater of neural responses possible in which those experiences may result. The repetition of neural responses is what, in turn, results in the neurological spectacle that is neuroplasticity. Interestingly enough, it wasn’t until recently that researchers began to look more closely at the effects of internal experiences on the brain.
Internal experiences are as they sound; they are experiences that one has within the realm of their own mind (Begley, 2004). As of late, internal experiences, such as the practice of meditation, have become a center focus in the study of neuroplasticity. Psychology today defines meditation as a practice involving the focusing of attention on a single physical object or phrase (known as a mantra). During meditation, the individual’s focus remains on the present moment and all distractions are removed (Meditation, 2016). Successfully maintaining this level of intensive focus required by meditation would obviously take repeated practice; repeated practice, in turn, that would initiate the physical changes of neuroplasticity. Extensive research on the recently hypothesized effects of mediation on neuroplasticity has uncovered several areas in which the physical structures of the brain can be changed by the repetitive practice of mediation. These changes in the physical structures of the brain have revealed interesting developments in the very nature of an individual’s overall sense of well-being. In other words, structural changes in the brain due to the practice of mediation have been shown to alter areas of the brain responsible for cognitive processes such as an individual’s ability to remain attentively focused on a task for a prolonged period, as well as those responsible for the regulation of emotional and executive processes (Pagnoni & Cekic, 2007).
First and foremost, mediation is essentially a work out designed specifically for the brain for the promotion of its structural and neural development. This development, as previously mentioned, results in countless changes in the way the brain perceives and processes information. In addition to these possibilities, includes a principal aspect of mediation that also affects what is perceived from the environment and how the perceived stimulus is entertained by the normally wondering mind: attention. TIME Magazine recently reported in May of last year that the human attention span has steadily decreased since the year 2000; a recent study on the human attention span reveals that the average adult attention span lasts no longer than eight seconds: one second short of that of the average gold fish (McSpadden, 2015). The question that remains, is how mediation can alter physical regions of the brain to support a longer attention span. Answering such a question relies on the results revealed in extensive studies done on the basic effects of meditation on the brain by researchers such as Antonino Raffone and Narayanan Srinivasan, whom conducted a study on mediation as it relates to the neuroscience of attention and consciousness.
From their research, Raffone and Narayanan concluded that since focusing attention on a singular object or mantra is an imperative aspect of meditation, the repeated practice of mediation revealed an increase in an individual’s ability or skill to hold their attention for longer durations of time, with a decrease in the effort to do so (Raffone & Srinivasan, 2010). A specific style of mediation known as Focused Attention mediation, or (FA) meditation, can result in these changes in attention span after prolonged practice. (FA) mediation is exactly what the name implies; it is a style of mediation that involves not only the focusing of attention on a single object or mantra, but also the acknowledgment of, and disengagement from, distraction. Another style of meditation, called Open Monitoring (OM) mediation also involves the disengagement from distractions as it calls on the individual to hold a non-judgmental awareness of their surroundings, focusing solely on the present moment. With repeated practice, (FA) meditators are able to notice a distracting thought but, they let it pass without so much as another moment of their attention. An interesting outcome of practicing this form of mediation is the effects on the systems of the brain responsible for conflict monitoring (Raffone & Srinivasan, 2010).
It’s plausible that with the development of the attention skills from practicing (FA) mediation, an individual would be able to treat a conflict as more of a distraction. Thus they would be better able to deal with the situation more objectively as a result of their ability to relinquish distracting thoughts that would otherwise interfere with resolving the conflict. In fact, regions of the brain such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and superior and intraparietal sulci, shown on fMRI images, were activated during mediation; these areas are associated with the processes of engaging attention and attentional orientating respectively (Davidson & Lutz, 2008). Generally speaking, the practice of either (FA) or (OM) mediation has been shown to greatly improve one’s ability to stay focused and disregard distracting environmental stimuli. Thus, an individual may be better able to sustain attention on certain tasks that require greater concentration; the successful completion of tasks such as driving, studying, or even strategized games like chess, could benefit significantly from an increases ability to focus and disregard distraction. Meditation offers such abilities through the neural changes that occur in response to its practice. Neuroplasticity is the perceivable solidification of the new neural pathways mediation encourages and facilitates in those that routinely practice it.
Not only does meditation facilitate the development of attention span skills; mediation has been scientifically shown to effect the volume of gray matter, as well as the myelin density of white matter. A cross-sectional design study done by Guiseppe Pagnoni and Milos Cekic on the physical effects of meditation on the typical decrease in gray matter volume associated with aging, used yet another style of meditation named Zen meditation. Zen meditation is third style of mediation that is very similar to (OM) mediation that requires the practicing individual maintain an open attitude and a regular breathing pattern, all while keeping good posture (Pagnoni & Cekic, 2007). Participants of their study were separated into two groups, one of long-term Zen meditators and one of controls, and asked to complete a sustained attention task while the researchers administered a Voxel-based-morphometry for an MRI to each participant. Data collected upon completion of the study illustrated that brains of the participants that did not regularly practice mediation showed the normal level of decrease of gray matter volume as a result of aging however, those that did showed no such decrease. With respect to the meditator’s group, a slight increase in their gray matter volume was shown, particularly in the putamen (Pagnoni & Cekic , 2007). Thus, as the overall volume of gray matter increases, it is reasonably predictable that individuals that practice meditation may perform better at tasks relating to the regions responsible for sensory perception, emotions, attention, etc., as these are areas located within the gray matter area. With regards to the putamen structure of the brain; Pagnoni and Cekic disclosed that the largest amount of gray matter increase in the meditator’s brains, was found in this area (2007).
Putamen, located at the base of the forebrain, are involved in motor control. That being said, individuals having more gray matter volume in their putamen would likely perform better with tasks relating to having skilled motor control as a result of the greater amount of volume readily available to strengthen those neural connections within the putamen. Gray matter aside, the nearly equally extensive regions of white matter, in this case the anterior cingulate cortex, have also shown dramatic changes in terms of neuroplasticity, resulting from the prolonged practice of mediation as reported in a study done by Tang et al. in 2012. Along with 4 other colleagues, Tang discovered in 2012 that neuroplasticity, as a result of mediation, significantly changed the ACC’s neural activity. As a result of neurological development within the anterior cingulate cortex, Tang et al. saw an elevation in the connections between the ACC and other regions of the brain. By utilizing fractional anisotropy as a measure of neural connectivity, researchers were able to detect neuroplastic changes in the ACC through the means of diffusion tensor imaging. Tasks pertaining to the functions of the ACC, such as problem solving abilities as well as the ability to exhibit control over one’s cognition and emotions, could also be improved with the expansion of neural connections (Tang et al., 2012).
In addition to the changes seen in the ACC, increases in axonal density, in other words myelin production, were also seen in response to the birth of new neural connections within the brains of experience meditators. Such increases in myelin production are speculated to be caused by the subsequent decrease in radial diffusivity or (RD). Since increases in (RD) are scientifically associated with decreases in myelination, such a decrease in (RD) would theoretically be associated with an occurrence of myelination. Such an occurrence as this would include the birth of neural connections, resulting in the further advancements of skills and cognitive abilities relative to the respective region in which these neuralplastic changes occur (Tromp, 2013). Generally speaking, meditation facilitates neuralplastic changes within the brain in a variety of ways but, aside from some of the smaller, possibly less noticeable changes, meditations offers an opportunity to not only heighten and build upon neurological structures within the brain, more importantly, it offers the individual an exercise of the mind that can influence one’s interaction with, and reaction to, life’s most challenging and rewarding experiences.
The possibilities, by and large, seem almost endless when it comes to the physical and mental health benefits that can arise with the integration of regular mediation practice into one’s lifestyle. Milestones in cognitive systems of processing have been discovered in the various studies previously discussed yet, there is so much more to meditation than what science can currently explain. As of right now, meditation has been shown to reduce high blood pressure, increase attention as well as give a favorable boost to the immune system. Albeit that further research will more than likely uncover more of meditation’s benefits in the human brain, the benefits that are currently understood have a great deal to offer and should be seriously considered a daily practice to integrate into one’s lifestyle. As Widdett contends in his article, that an individual’s overall sense of well-being and empathy towards others is heightened, as well as strengthened, as a result of mediation (2014).
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Get custom essayBut, Widdett’s claims are not without scientific evidence as presented in previous studies that he cites in his article, as well as the select studies mentioned in previous paragraphs. To reiterate, mediation produces effects relating to physical, emotional, and cognitive aspects of the human experience (Wilson, 2013). It’s the kind of investment in which the effort put in is greatly surpassed by the associated rewards. In one last pitch, mediation has been shown in research to lower blood pressure which could help those of whom struggle with hypertension. The emotional regulation possible by meditation can help in various situations in which a cool, calm, collected mind is necessary. Lastly, neural developments in the cognitive systems as a result of the regular practice of mediation could prove useful in the event that higher levels of concentration are needed. Mediation comes with a myriad of possibilities for improving experiences in life, all it takes is time and practice to build up a skill that will serve its purpose over a lifetime.
“I’ve heard that sometimes a version of you must die before another more enlightened version can be born. I think that’s true after watching the corpse of myself walk around.”
Get original essayWith over seven billion humans in the world, it is clear that human experience is a relatively independent and unique thing. However, there are some aspects of being human – or even being alive – that tie people and animals alike. The need to breathe, sleep, eat, and propagate the species transcends time, culture and even taxonomic diversity. With this in mind, some processes make for an interesting study in how both animals and humans function. Related to this, the phenomenon of narcolepsy in living beings – humans and animals alike – makes for a unique study in biological and circadian processes. Simply put, narcolepsy is the phenomenon of sleepiness during the day, cataplexy, and other related symptoms like fragmented sleep. There has been a great deal of research conducted on this topic, so the knowledge surround narcolepsy – its characterizations, symptoms, diagnosis, and physiology – is well established. This discussion paper examines narcolepsy both in general and in terms of three specific models of narcolepsy and how it manifests. First, the paper turns to an overview of narcolepsy, including its symptoms, diagnosis, and physiology. Second, the paper discusses narcolepsy in animals; this second section deals primarily with rats and mice. Third, the paper examines narcolepsy in relation to the circadian rhythm, and asks whether narcolepsy occurs equally during the day as it does at night. Finally, the paper discusses the role of emotion in narcolepsy, and what types of emotional feelings can act as trigger events for a narcoleptic attack. While this discussion is not exhaustive, examining these various aspects of scientific knowledge surrounding narcolepsy will go a long way toward establishing an understanding of the phenomenon.
First, the overall discussion will benefit by turning to an overview of what narcolepsy is in scientific terms and how it functions. As noted above, narcolepsy is characterized by various symptoms, such as “excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy, [and] fragmented sleep” (Baumann, Bassetti, & Scammell, 2011, 5). In simple terms, cataplexy is a medical condition that causes individuals to collapse (though remain conscious) after the onset of a very strong emotion or the physical response of this emotion, such as laughter (Baumann, Bassetti, & Scammell, 2011, 5). As will be discussed, because of the confluence of both cataplexy and fragmented sleep, these two symptoms are thought to be indicators (if not preexisting conditions) of narcolepsy. However, the jury is still out on this front. As the authors quoted above go on to state, “The prevalence of narcolepsy without cataplexy is largely unknown, as a proper population-based study would require an MSLT of all subjects”; however, in case studies, they also note that narcolepsy patients without cataplexy represent anywhere form 20%-50% of all cases of narcolepsy. Clearly, though there is some conception of the connection between cataplexy and narcolepsy, the scientific knowledge so far has not made a direct link between the two types of symptoms.
This is despite the fact that scientists have been studying narcolepsy for well over a century. As Baumann, Bassetti, & Scammell (2011) note, “until recently, its cause remained a mystery” (5). The largest breakthrough was in 2000, when two independent research groups discovered the physiological cause of narcolepsy: “a selective loss of neurons in the hypothalamus that produce the hypocretin neuropetides (also known as orexins)” (Baumann, Bassetti, & Scammell, 2011, 5). In other words, narcolepsy is caused not be a chemical imbalance or chemical response, but by the preexisting setup of the neurons within an individual’s brain. It was with this “groundbreaking perspective” that “narcolepsy research has advanced in large steps, with new discoveries every year that have enhanced our understanding of the disorder” (Baumann, Bassetti, & Scammell, 2011, 6). Despite these steps forward, the main research question that remains is in regards to what ‘kills’ these neurons that cause narcolepsy in the first place.
But what is the consequence of narcolepsy? One of the main symptoms of narcolepsy is that it has “its major onset in adolescence” and often worsens with “puberty onset” with the main experience for early onset patients as having non-refreshing sleep (Wehrle & Bruck, 2011, 32). The consequence of this timeline is social as much as psychological: “The widespread and often severe psychosocial effects partially arose from a delay in diagnosis. Sever educational failure was a common consequence. Symptoms affected work and life goals. Increased social withdrawal and lower self esteem were often evidence. Sleepiness was a problem both for public transportation and driving, substantially affecting independent mobility” (Wehrle & Bruck, 2011, 32). With this in mind, it is clear that the scientific knowledge surrounding narcolepsy should be increased in order to better the recognition of the condition. As the authors go on to state, “Increased awareness of the disease and the provision of psychoeducational support, in conjunction with early diagnosis and medical treatment, are strongly warranted to prevent the most common educational and psychosocial problems, including risk of depression” (Wehrle & Bruck, 2011, 32). This is confirmed by another academic article, which also notes the occurrence rate of narcolepsy: it “occurs in approximately 1 in 2000 individuals, and usually begins in the teens and early twenties” with a lifetime prevalence of 1 to 18 for every 1000 people (Kishi, et al., 2004, 117; Ohayon et al., 2002). These two academic sources clarify that while there is a great deal of knowledge regarding narcolepsy, scientists are constantly learning more. The three specific models of narcolepsy discussed below should show how this knowledge is growing, and what it means for narcoleptic patients.
First of all, examining narcolepsy in animals is a good first step in building knowledge about the phenomenon. The prevalence and symptoms of narcolepsy in animals can go a long way toward building scientific knowledge regarding narcolepsy in humans. As one source states, “To facilitate further research, it is imperative that researchers reach a consensus concerning the evaluation of narcoleptic behavioral and EEG phenomenology in these models” – including animal models (Chen, Brown, McKenna & McCarley, 2009, 296). In order to approach this, the authors examine various models of narcolepsy. The first is in domestic animals like sheep, horses, dogs and even bulls (Chen, Brown, McKenna & McCarley, 2009). The authors focus on canines as a primary source of information for narcolepsy, since dogs have the largest rate of narcolepsy, particularly with cataplexy (Chen, Brown, McKenna & McCarley, 2009). The authors have specific insight regarding the canine model of narcolepsy: “Pedigree analysis indicated an autosomal recessive mode of transmission with full penetrance…it became clear that there are both familial and sporadic forms of canine narcolepsy” (Chen, Brown, McKenna & McCarley, 2009, 297). This insight provides one of the first steps toward understanding not only why narcolepsy occurs, but why there is a shortage of the necessary neurons in the hippocampus in the first place – that is, genetic mutation. However, the authors clarify that “it should be noted that genetic mutation alone may not account for the full symptomatic development of narcolepsy”, since those canines treated with anti-inflammatory agents at an early age reduced both cataplexy and narcolepsy (Chen, Brown, McKenna & McCarley, 2009, 297). The authors also delve into specific environments and triggers that can lead to the onset of narcolepsy in animal models. For instance, the authors found that there were three distinct stages of cataplexy in canines: “The initial stage had muscle atonia, waking-like EEG and visual tracking…The second stage resembled REM sleep with hippocampal theta activity…The final stage was characterized by EEG with mixed frequency and amplitude before a transition into wakefulness or sleep” (Chen, Brown, McKenna & McCarley, 2009, 298). These canine models are a good beginning for researchers.
A good resource for research on narcolepsy are rodent models of the phenomenon. According to one study, episodes of narcolepsy in mice were characterized by the following psymptoms: “the abrupt cessation of purposeful motor activity associated with a sudden, sustained change in posture that was maintained throughout the episode, ending abruptly with complete resumption of purposeful motor activity” (Chen, Brown, McKenna & McCarley, 2009, 301). The account of these symptoms, combined with a consideration of what activities and events preceded the attacks, help form a scientific idea of how narcolepsy occurs and what can precipitate narcoleptic attacks. It also helps understand how and when narcoleptic patients return to a normal state of either wakefulness or sleep after a narcoleptic attack and how long they can last.
Another study examined a more specific aspect of the animal model of narcolepsy: how genes impact the prevalence and symptoms of narcolepsy. This is actually one of the original studies that showed the importance of neurons and genes in causing narcolepsy in both animals and humans. As these authors state, “We report that a null mutation induced by targeted disruption of the mouse orexin gene results in an autosomal recessive phenotype with characteristics remarkably similar to narcolepsy” (Chemelli et al., 1999, 437). In other words, the authors found that the occurrence of narcolepsy in mice was directly related to a specific type of gene – or neuron. As the authors conclude, “These observations firmly identify orexins as neuropeptides with an important function in sleep regulation” (Chemelli et al., 1999, 437). This study, then, establishes the specific type of neuron, orexin, as the primary factor affecting narcolepsy.
The other topic that provides some insight into how narcolepsy functions is in relation to circadian rhythms. The main question here is whether narcolepsy is related to circadian rhythms; in other words, does narcolepsy occur more during the daytime, at night, or equally at all hours of the day? Because this is more easily observable than other aspects of narcolepsy, there is a great deal of knowledge on the topic. In regards to sleep and circadian rhythms overall, there is one source that is worth quoting at length:
“A series of findings over the past decade has begun to identify the brain circuitry and neurotransmitters that regulate our daily cycles of sleep and wakefulness. The latter depends on a network of cell groups that activate the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. A key switch in the hypothalamus shuts off this arousal system during sleep. Other hypothalamic neurons stabilize the switch, and their absence results in inappropriate switching of behavioral states, such as occurs in narcolepsy” (Saper, Scammell, & Lu, 2005, 1257).
In other words, narcolepsy is directly impacted not so much by a human’s internal circadian rhythm, but instead more by the internal processes of the hypothalamus. This is confirmed by another source, which states that “The mechanisms that potentially disturb the circadian rhythm of leptin levels in hypocretin-deficient narcoleptic humans include anomalies of the sleep-wake cycle and/or disruption of the circadian distribution of autonomic activity” (Kok et al., 2001, 8246). In other words, the neurological process that affects narcoleptic humans is completely independent from the circadian rhythm. This is confirmed again by a third study, which found that “the homeostatic process of sleep regulation is intact in narcoleptics…it appears that the circadian clock itself is functioning normally in narcoleptics” (Dantz, Edgar, & Derment, 1994, 24). With this in mind, one can safely conclude that narcoleptic attacks are just as likely to occur during the daytime as at night, since narcolepsy is not directly impacted by the circadian rhythm.
The last topic relevant to understanding narcolepsy in both human and animal models is how narcoleptic attacks relate to emotional feelings. First and foremost, it is clear that emotion has some part to play in narcoleptic attacks; for instance, one study found that “Emotions were found more often and were more intense in narcoleptic SOREM than in nighttime REM of either narcoleptic or normal subjects, with anxiety/fear exhibiting the strongest increase, followed by joy/elation” (Fosse, Stickgold & Hobson, 2002, 724). In this regard, SOREM refers to REM that occurs at the first stage of daytime naps and nighttime sleep (Fosse, Stickgold & Hobson, 2002, 724). This finding makes it clear that extreme emotions of both varieties – both positive and negative – can have a role in the onset and length of narcoleptic attacks, at least once sleep is already underway. As these authors conclude, “The REM sleep of patients with narcolepsy affords a unique opportunity to study emotion and to analyze its psychophysiology,” and their study found that “Narcolepsy intensifies REM-dream emotion, especially anxiety/fear and joy/elation, and this is most clearly seen during SOREM sleep” (Fosse, Stickgold & Hobson, 2002, 724). In other words, emotions can trigger narcoleptic attacks even during sleep. But what about emotional triggers while patients are awake, that result in cataplexy – which in turn results in narcolepsy? One study provides insight into this question, stating that “Cataplexy is one of the most intriguing examples of how thought content can alter neurologic functioning,” since patients in a state of cataplexy that also experience “an intense emotional state triggers objective transient muscle weakness verified by areflexia” (Krahn et al., 2005, 45). More specifically, the study identified the specific type of emotional response that serves as a primary trigger for cataplexy: laughter. As the authors report, “Patients with narcolepsy-cataplexy identified laughter as a more consistent cause of cataplexy than other closely related positive emotional states such as hearing a joke, feeling excited, feeling elevated, remembering a happy moment, or experience an (unspecified) emotional event” (Krahn et al., 2005, 47). Since cataplexy is closely related to the onset of a narcoleptic attack, the discussion here can conclude as well that these emotional responses are just some emotional feelings and stimuli that can bring on a narcoleptic attack.
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Get custom essayThis discussion paper has examined narcolepsy in four parts: first, as it relates to humans overall, second, as it relates to animal models, third, as it relates to circadian patterns and, fourth, as it relates to emotional feelings and related trigger events. While the discussion was certainly not exhaustive, the paper has made two insights clear. The first insight is that research has yielded a great deal of knowledge regarding narcolepsy, its symptoms, and even its causes. As the research presented above shows, much of the physiology of narcolepsy is already known. However, the discussion paper has also made another insight clear: that a great deal of research is missing in order to adequately understand not only how and why narcolepsy occurs, but how to prevent it. Clearly, understanding the processes and factors that can be affected by human intervention is the next (and most important) stage of research.
In recent years, abortion has been the most controversial and politically charged subject in the United States. Abortion can be defined as the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy. The two main sides of the debate are “pro-choice” and “pro-life”. A pro-choicer would strongly believe that the decision to abort her baby is between her and her doctor, and the state has no right to interfere. A pro-lifer would argue that from the moment of conception the embryo is alive. A statistic from the Guttmacher Institute says, 42 million abortions occurred around the world in 2018, making it the leading cause of death on Earth. Unless of the case of rape, incest, or the life of the mother at risk abortion should be illegal because human life starts are conception, everyone has the right to life, and no child should die from the parent's irresponsibleness.
Get original essayTo begin, individual human life begins at fertilization and therefore, abortion is the immoral killing of a human being. For instance, Dr. Keith Moore writes, “Human life begins at fertilization, the process during which a male gamete or sperm unites with a female gamete to form a single cell called a zygote. This highly specialized cell marked the beginning of each of us as a unique individual. A zygote is the beginning of a new human being”. From the moment of conception, unique DNA is created that no one has. Genetic DNA is unrepeatable, not another human being will have anything like it. Also, 'Every time a sperm cell and ovum unite a new being is created which is alive and will continue to live unless its death is brought about by some specific condition.' Life starts at conception and if that fertilized egg was found on mars, we would agree it is acceptable to say there is life on Mars. Science is evident that a fetus is not just a “cluster of cells”, it is a human being in the beginning stage of development.
Secondly, the life inside the womb is innocent and valuable and nothing should trump the independent rights of that life. In article 2 of the Human Rights Act, it states, “nobody, including the Government, can try to end your life. The government should take appropriate measures to safeguard life by making laws to protect it”. What is the most important right an individual living in the United States has? The most important right that the government can protect is the right to live. The government should be there to protect the vulnerable children in the womb from having their life then from them. Abortion takes away from the unborn the inalienable right to life that the Founding Fathers intended for all human beings (Interactive Constitution). The life inside is precious and valuable, it is innocent, and it is worth protecting.
Lastly, a vast majority of abortions are not due to the mother's health, rape or incest, it is about lifestyle inconvenience. As claimed by the Guttmacher Institute, “1% of abortions obtained by women were because of rape, less than .05% because of incest, and 3% because the life of the mother was at risk”. With the knowledge of these statistics, the preponderance of women is fully capable of following through with the pregnancy but choosing to get an abortion because the child is inconvenient. Being inconvenient or being a burden on someone is not a justification to kill a child in the womb. Many people engage in irresponsible sexually risky behavior without consequence and now millions of children die due to irresponsibleness. This common trend we see today is referred to as the “throwaway culture,” which alludes to human beings being disposable. 'When we tell one another that abortion is okay, we reinforce the idea that human lives are disposable, that we can throw away anything or anyone that inconveniences us'.
However, the opposition claims that abortion lowers crime, kids in adoption are miserable, and the woman should get to choose what happens with her body. An article from Harvard University writes, “Women who have abortions are those most at risk to give birth to children who would engage in criminal activity. And women who had control over the timing of childbearing were more likely to raise children in optimal environments, crime is reduced when there is access to legal abortion” (Barro). On the other hand, the number one thing that will predict if a child is a criminal is being born into a single-mother household. No matter how bad the home environment is there is no 100% guarantee that a child will become a criminal, and because of that you cannot say their life is invalid. It is true, “As of 2017, there were 442,995 children in foster care”. The opposing view claims that there are way too many children in foster care already and they all live terrible lives. So, because there is an orphanage system and there is a foster care problem, we should just kill the child early in the womb? Putting your child up for adoption is free. There are very filled waiting lists of couples that want your baby. Also, a common slogan said by pro-choice advocates is “My body, my choice.” Despite that, your preborn child’s body growing inside your body, is not your body. Otherwise, a pregnant mother with a baby could be said to have two hearts, four eyes, and eight limbs. Abortion’s legality does not make it moral or safe; it is never safe for the babies it destroys.
To conclude, abortion should be illegal because life starts at the moment of conception, the child in the womb has the right to life, and individuals need to accept the responsibility that comes with producing a child. With abortion, we have a separate life-giving aspect of sex with the pleasurable aspect of sex. And what that does is encourages people to engage in sexually risky and irresponsible behavior because they know at the end of the day, they can just get an abortion. Now if you take abortion out then progressively people are going to be encouraged to be more responsible in their sex life. Over time it would strengthen the family and be better for our society. Abortion is the direct killing of an innocent child and nothing but in the instance of rape, incest, and the health of the mother should forfeit the validity of the child's life.
One of the ways humans learn about themselves is by studying animals. Studying communication in animals is an important topic because it can lead to clues on why the human brain is so advanced. This information can potentially give us an idea of the evolution of language and where or why our skills emerged. Growing up with a dog, this is not the first time animal communication has crossed my mind. My Yorkshire Terrier, Shazzy, always seems to find a way to communicate her needs to me and my parents, and she even responds to our verbal commands. Before coming to the University of Iowa, I had considered her actions and reactions as some form of “language.” However, now that we have gone over the different characteristics of language, I no longer consider this language, just a communication system.
Get original essayAnimals use a communication system. According to our lecture notes, a language system is classified by a signal being transmitted, a mode of transmission, and a goal of the signal. One example of this is bees. Honeybees are known for being very good at directions and being able to convey an exact location to the hive. In the video we watched in lecture, the honeybee would use the position of the sun and do a dance to show the direction and how long the other bees should travel. The signal is the direction and distance conveyed, the mode is through their movement, and the goal is to find nectar. Another example of an animal communication system is when birds use a certain call to mean danger. There appears to be no higher complexity other than to express that there is a threat in the area. Both examples of communication occur in the here-and-now. However, one of characteristics of human language that differentiates it from animal communication is being able to communicate something separate from the present time or the present setting, also called displacement.
According to our lecture notes, there are six characteristics of language that are not present in animal communication: arbitrariness, displacement, productivity, discreteness, semanticity, and duality of patterning. The first one, arbitrariness, means that there is no connection between the signal and its meaning. For example, the phonemes combined to make “cat” in English have no connection or significance to an actual cat. This is the reason every language has a unique word for cat. Animal communication, however, does not use arbitrary sounds. One example is a dog’s bark. When my dog barks at me, she wants my attention for something, but it is not totally clear for what because the bark sounds the same every time.
The second characteristic is displacement, briefly mentioned above. Displacement is the idea that we can communicate about something that is not presently happening. In the case of humans, some examples of displacement are discussing the future/past or what we hope for. Animal communication is not this advanced. Most examples of animal communication are expressed because of a reaction to their present environment. Some examples of this are a dog marking its territory, the warning of a predator, deterring a predator. In the case of domesticated animals, they will communicate that they need food/water, to go outside, or that they want to play. However, none of these examples show a displacement from their present environment. One example of animal displacement is the honeybee dance. It enables them to communicate about something not presently there.
Discreteness is the idea that humans can say any word at any pitch and any volume, and it won’t mean anything different. For example, someone could scream “frog” at you or whisper it, and it still wouldn’t mean anything other than a frog. Language is made of units that are discrete, have meaning, and are be repeated. Bird communication has this. The songs they sing for mates and other purposes are repeated and more complex than one call. However, other animals do not have discrete sounds.
The fourth characteristic is productivity. Productivity means that someone that uses a language can create and understand novel utterances. For example, “the dog with green gills flew over the cloud” is a sentence that has never happened, but a language user can create it and understand it because they understand the rules of grammar. The Instagram page “Hunger4Words” is run by an SLP whose dog uses an AAC device. Dogs do not have the right anatomy required for speech or for sign, so an interesting consideration is whether they have the skills to use language but have no means to. With this device, the dog can produce English phrases and communicate with her owner. She has even used novel phrases like “help water outside” to communicate that her button for “beach” was broken. Koko the gorilla from our lecture notes was taught sign language and could combine the words taught to make new meanings like “frozen lollipop” for a frozen banana. However, most other animals do not demonstrate productivity.
Semanticity is the characteristic that a specific sound combination corresponds to a specific meaning. Human languages all contain specific words that have specific sound combinations and correspond to a meaning. The example before of bird songs having specific meaning may have some sort of semantic correlation, but there is no evidence of this. All other animal communication does not use specific sound combinations that mean something specific.
The last characteristic is duality of patterning. This is the idea that language is made of two levels: words/morphemes and phonemes. Animal communication does not reach this level of complexity that we know of. Like discussed above, birds have the means to use different phonemes, but this has not been proven.
Overall, animals and humans both communicate, but we cannot call animal communication a language. Individual animals have certain characteristics of language, but no animal demonstrates all six. Growing up, I used to imagine everything my dog understood as them understanding my language. However, now I believe it may have simply been an association between the word I say that corresponds to something the dog wants. However, the continued studying of animal communication methods could lead to discovering something more complex that humans haven’t identified.
The problem that most people face - procrastination – is the theme of this essay of 300 words. In the mid-18th century procrastination was known as the act of continually putting things off. In Night thoughts by Edward Young an English poet and dramatist, he uses the phrase ‘Procrastination is the thief of time.` Meaning that putting tasks of leads to the wastage of time. The definition of procrastination is the act intentionally delaying or avoiding doing tasks that need to be done. Procrastination is basically poor time management which can diminish the quality of your work, lead you to miss your deadlines, could stop others from wanting to work with you and could tarnish your reputation. The traditional definition of procrastination is based of laziness but that is not just what procrastination is. Everyone is different and they procrastinate in different ways.
Get original essayThere are five common types of procrastinators: the perfectionist, the dreamer, the avoider, the lazy or crisis-maker, and the busy procrastinator. Science has found eight main reasons why people procrastinate, including fear of failure, not knowing where or how to start, not being bothered, thinking a task is too easy, distractions, and lack of motivation.
To beat procrastination, you need to recognize your procrastination method, figure out why you procrastinate, and adopt strategies to help you overcome it. These strategies might include writing down specific tasks, prioritizing tasks, completing less interesting tasks first and rewarding yourself, limiting distractions, and finding someone to motivate you.
Ultimately, as Dr. Steve Maraboli said, 'No more excuses or procrastination! Stop letting your days be stolen by busy nothingness.' By recognizing the problem, understanding its root causes, and adopting effective strategies, you can beat procrastination and make the most of your time.
It has been located through a variety of academics that as time is going by way of the time period victimology or victim has not been described in a single precise definition primarily based at the truth that there are many distinct causes that makes one character to be referred to as a sufferer for example when you have a look at a definition of a victim from a crook legalistic angle, the victimologists angle and the constructionist angle, these kind of definitions range from every other however at the stop they all communicate approximately a victim. The term victimology is not new. In reality, Benjamin Mendelsohn first used it in 1947 to explain the clinical look at of crime sufferers. Victimology is reviewed as a subfield of criminology, and the two fields do percentage much in common. Just as criminology is the examine of criminals –what they do, why they do it, and the way the crook justice responds to them. Victimology is the observe of victims, it is the observe of the reasons of victimization, its results, how the crook justice device incorporates and assists sufferers, and how other elements of society inclusive of media deal with crime sufferers. In this undertaking the following dialogue may be positioned the label of victim in a broader framework of social construction, first I can talk the records of victimology or sufferer, secondly I will speak the paradigms and paradoxes of sufferer, thirdly I’m able to speak the theories if victimology in addition to the sensible application of the theories in a case have a look at and it is going to be followed by using the conclusion.
Get original essayHistorically, the Latin time period victima become used to explain individuals or animals whose lives were destined to be sacrificed to please a deity. It did now not necessarily mean pain or struggling, simplest a sacrificial function. In the nineteenth century, the word victim have become linked with the notion of harm or loss in trendy (Spalek 2006). Within the modern criminal justice device, the word sufferer has come to explain any individual who has skilled harm, loss, or trouble because of the illegal action of some other individual, institution, or enterprise (Karmen 2004). The term victimology first regarded in 1949, in a book about murderers written by forensic psychiatrist Fredric Wertham. It turned into used to describe the observe of people harmed by means of criminals (Karmen 2007). Today, as defined in our Preface, victimology refers generally to the clinical study of victims and victimization, which includes the relationships between victims and offenders, investigators, courts, corrections, media, and social actions (Kamren 1990).
As formerly mentioned, the term victimology changed into coined inside the mid-1900s. Crime changed into, of path happening previous to this time; therefore, humans have been being victimized long before the scientific observe of crime commenced. Despite the fact that they have been no longer scientifically studied, victims were identified as being harmed through crime, and their position within the crook justice system has developed through the years. Before and at some point of the middle a long time (approximately 5th thru the sixteenth century), the weight of the justice machine, casual as it became, fell on the victim. Whilst someone or property changed into harmed, it changed into as much as the sufferer and the sufferer’s circle of relatives to are looking for justice. This changed into typically archived thru retaliation. The justice system operated underneath the precept of Lex talionis, an eye for an eye fixed. A crook could be punished due to the fact she or he deserved it, and the punishment could be identical to the harm precipitated. Punishment based on those notions is regular with retribution. Early criminal codes incorporated those standards. The code of Hammurabi changed into the idea for order and in reality in Babylon. Within the code, recuperation of equity among the offender and the sufferer became careworn. Word that the early response to crime focused at the victim, now not the country. This attention on the sufferer continued until the Industrial Revolution.
A paradigm is mostly thought-about to be a bigger word than simply a ‘theory’. Kuhn (1962) defines a paradigm as ‘an elementary image of the topic matter inside a science’, whereas a ‘theory’ is entially describes a selected development. In association to victimology every of the 3 major paradigms studied additionally talk over with ‘theoretical perspectives’) and it represents a precise read of society in association to queries relevant to victimology. Every of the three major victimological paradigms are going to be reviewed.
The primary paradigm is the positivist or the law or order paradigm, the historical history of the paradigms says that the law and beliefs is essentially based upon conservative Criminology, of which the roots cross lower back to nicely before the 1970s. However, it is probably authentic to mention that regulation and order ideological have an effect on crime sufferer regulations virtually started across the time while the victims’ ‘movement’ began to make an effect on criminal justice rules in the U.S in the early 1970s. There are particular crimes which are derived from the paradigm , first with admire of the definition of against the law ‘sufferer’ this is conceived narrowly, restrained mostly to people who’ve suffered private crimes of violence and crimes in opposition to property completed specifically by way of strangers. Such crimes are typically attack, murder, rape, and theft. Those are crimes that right away create a robust worry of crime and may be used by law and order advocates to play on the emotions and fears of the general public (McShane & Williams 1992:35). One important complaint of the ideology is that while proponents of this perspective have made strong political and emotional use of the appeal that the sufferings of crime sufferers bring (Grabosky 1987), and it has served the proponents pursuits, the pursuits of sufferers themselves were not always served. This is due to the fact there is little proof that the adjustments instituted to date are preferred through victims and are actually benefiting them.
The second one paradigm is the novel paradigm, the main ideas of the radical paradigm are demarginalisation, pre-emptive deterrence and minimal use of prison. The historic historical past of this paradigm says that in most Anglo-Saxon nations between the overdue Nineteen Sixties and early Eighties conservative forces often used the victim rhetoric to with no trouble develop their positions and ideology. Given that in this era progressive criminologists did no longer efficiently venture the approach, it became not surprising that a brand new paradigm arose to oppose each the prevailing criminological paradigms. In England this became known as ‘left realism’ or ‘radical left realism’, and many victimologists additionally refer to the paradigm as ‘radical’ victimology (‘idealists’ discover references to ‘radical’ tricky). Radical victimology questions the role of the country and the law in defining the social creation of the victim wrongdoer relationship and it’s miles in addition divided into paradigms which is the pathetic sufferer that is used by feminists who are subjected to violence by guy and the heroic sufferer paradigm meaning prisoners of conscience, those people who are idealistic and courageous like Nelson Mandela.
The third paradigm is the important paradigm, till the Nineteen Eighties, the reaction to law and order labelled as ideology was in large part this paradigm become broadly founded upon the novel Criminology paradigm, which advanced throughout the Nineteen Fifties and was primarily based mainly on Marxist theories. Radical criminology now could be a multifaceted paradigm knowledgeable and subtle by using more recent theoretical views, along with crucial prison concept, submit-modernism, submit-colonialism and various kinds of feminist concept. Perhaps a higher label nowadays is ‘critical Criminology’ (White & Haynes 1996: bankruptcy 11). As discussed underneath, within victimology in the Nineties an extra pragmatic strand of the ‘idealist’ paradigm has been articulated, which has been termed ‘crucial Victimology’ (Mawby & Walklate 1994). This paradigm perspectives crime now not as a made from pathological individuals, because the positivist paradigm, but in large part a result of social inequalities. It says that it is unemployment, poverty and racism that provides the reasons of crime, this paradigm additionally disagrees with the emphasis of the law and order ideology on individual duty, and as a substitute advocates that it isn’t individuals who want to take duty for crime, however instead society as an entire. On this way, in addition they task the law and order concept of self-reliance. The paradigm argue that any move toward the abolition of, or a massive reduction of the electricity of the crook justice gadget (which includes police and prisons), is faulty, because it will result in more lawlessness and is a sign of ethical weakness.
These theories had been evolved to offer factors for the variations in victimisation risks as well as the clustering of victimisation in positive areas and amongst sure agencies (Williams & McShane, 1994:223). For you to advance a higher know-how of sexual harassment and rape of woman students in tertiary institutions a disapproving evaluate of applicable fashions and procedures particularly, the victim precipitation idea, life-style model and the routine activity approach.
The first systematic take a look at of victim involvement in crime turned into conducted in the past due Nineteen Fifties by way of Marvin Wolfgang. The time period he introduced, “sufferer precipitation,” have become a famous descriptor for all direct-contact predatory crime (e.g., murder, attack, forcible rape, robbery). While implemented to murder, victim precipitation is restricted to those instances in which “the sufferer is the primary in the murder drama to resort to bodily pressure towards the following slayer” (Wolfgang 1958, p. 252; see additionally Wolfgang 1957).
Victim precipitation typically involve an evidence of the way an character’s behaviour may additionally make a contribution to his or her victimization and the idea is most commonly associated with crimes like homicide, rape, attack and robbery. Like all criminology theories, sufferer precipitation pertains to how and why crime takes place. While most theories focus on the acts and intentions of the culprit, sufferer precipitation seeks to understand the interaction among the sufferer and the wrongdoer. Underneath this principle, the sufferer is considered an active player within the crime. This occurs in ways: first, the sufferer is the participant within the crime who acts first; and second, the sufferer encourages or provokes the wrongdoer to commit the crime. Those are the primary components of the sufferer precipitation idea.
Lifestyle version one of the most and predominant fashions explaining differential risks of victimisation is the lifestyle exposure version developed by Hindelang, Gottfredson and Garofalo in 1978. The factor of departure of the life-style exposure model of personal victimisation is that the likelihood that a character might be victimised relies upon to a brilliant quantity at the lifestyle of the character. In widespread, the life-style may be defined as “patterned methods in which individuals channel their time and strength by using conducting a number of sports” (Fattah, 1991:319). Hindelang, Gottfredson and Garofalo (1978:241) but, define lifestyle because the “habitual day by day sports, both vocational nine paintings, school, maintaining residence) and amusement activities “. People every day sports may additionally obviously deliver them into touch with crime, or they merely boom the chance of crime that victims revel in. Time spent in a single’s home commonly decreases victim threat, while time spent in public settings increases hazard variations in lifestyles are socially decided by means of people’ collective responses or variations to various position expectations and structural constraints. Both ascribed and carried out fame traits (e.g., age, gender, race, earnings, marital popularity, training, occupation) are vital correlates of predatory crime due to the fact these repute attributes carry with them shared expectations approximately appropriate behaviour and structural barriers that each permit and constrain one’s behavioural picks. Adherence to these cultural and structural expectations leads to the status quo of recurring activities patterns and associations with others similarly situated. These life and associations, in turn, are anticipated to beautify one’s publicity to unstable or susceptible conditions that increase individuals’ possibilities of victimization.
The routine activity approach turned into advanced through Cohen and Marcus in 1979. Kennedy and Silverman (1988:1) state that this technique turned into stimulated by using the work of Hawley (1950) on human ecology and Shaw and McKay’s paintings on juvenile delinquency in city areas (1942). The habitual hobby technique uses regularities in behavioural recurring to expect criminal victimisation. The routine hobby technique is a distinctly current technique that is related to the rational choice angle. Which means that this version is based on freedom of desire and movement which yield a more complete photo or model of crime (Williams & McShane, 1994:250).Routine activities may be described as “recurrent and well-known” activities which give for primary populace and character desires, whatever their biological or cultural origins (Cohen & Felson, 1979:593, Felson, 1997:913, Miethe, Stafford & long, 1987:184). Those consist of formalised paintings as well as the provision of widespread meals, shelter, sexual outlet, amusement, social interplay, mastering and childrearing. These sports can also arise at home, in jobs far away from home and in other sports focused far from home. Cohen and Felson’s (1979:588-589) conceptualisation of predatory crime centers around 3 important elements for the committing of predatory crime. They argue that the following elements must converge, specifically a motivated offender, a suitable target and the absence of capable guardians.
A motivated offender A prompted perpetrator Felson (1987:911-912) maintains that a whole lot approximately crime can be found out by inspecting wrongdoer routines. In keeping with him offenders searching for the least attempt this means that that they want the shortest path to spend the least amount of time at the crime. Likewise offenders pursue the most obvious objectives relying on their senses. The approach additionally assumes that daily moves and preferred mobility can either growth or lessen capacity victimisation and that offending may be deterred, displaced or maybe endorsed relying on sure environmental and social conditions (Cohen & Felson, 1979:590). These theorists regard a influenced wrongdoer as a given reality and for this reason do no longer provide any explanation of what motivates individuals to dedicate crime.
Suitability of the target In keeping with Mannon (1997:15) the questions most in all likelihood requested right here are: who are the most probable victims? And what makes those targets (sufferers) most appropriate? Four additives, particularly value, physical visibility, accessibility and inertia make contributions to a target being regarded as appropriate for against the law. Fee refers back to the financial and symbolic desirability of the item even as visibility applies to the perceptibility and/or the chance of being noticed by using capability offenders. Accessibility implies the availability and the convenience with which a criminal can approach the goal without drawing any attention. Ultimately, inertia refers to the convenience with which the goal may be obtained consisting of factors which makes it difficult to overpower a target in addition to the sufferer’s ability to provide forceful resistance. In this regard, Cohen and Felson (1979:560) are of the view that for any crime to occur there should be something really worth stealing, or an appearance of wealth. those researchers assert that habitual activities have an impact at the suitability of the goal in that a routine pattern of behaviour can also boom the possibility of a convergence of individuals specially locations at particular times.
Target or victim is directly linked to the third condition in the routine activity approach namely, absence of capable guardians
Absence of a capable guardian Williams and McShane (1994:222) state that for any crime to occur the occasions should be such that no person or nothing need to or must distract the encouraged perpetrator. Cohen and Felson (1979:560) refer to successful guardians as normal citizens going about their day by day exercises in addition to mechanical devices which include locks, alarms and protection cameras. In other phrases, it includes ordinary human beings enacting casual social manipulate via looking and sanctioning.
It’s far hypothesised that with the convergence in area and time of encouraged offenders, appropriate objectives and the absence of capable guardians, the chance of being a sufferer will increase. Cohen and Felson (1979:561) similarly argue that the shortage of any of these elements is enough to prevent a criminal offense from going on. As an example, if an encouraged offender encounters a uniformed police officer with a tremendous deal of coins, then the third element might be lacking and the chance of crime could be decreased if no longer removed altogether.
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Get custom essayIn conclusion, these discussion was about victimology and how it has developed since the 1990s to now and how paradigms and theories have helped to understand the term victim.
In the hunger essay of 300 words, I’ll discuss this critical issue affecting millions of people worldwide. According to the World Food Programme, an estimated 690 million people were hungry in 2019. The problem is not only limited to developing countries but is also present in developed nations. The causes of hunger are multifaceted, including poverty, conflict, climate change, and inequality. Poverty is a major contributor to hunger as people living in poverty cannot afford to buy enough food. Conflict can lead to food shortages as people flee their homes, and crops are destroyed. Climate change has also had an impact on food production, with extreme weather events such as droughts and floods destroying crops. Inequality also plays a role in hunger, with marginalized communities having limited access to food and resources.
Get original essayThe effects of hunger are devastating, with malnutrition being one of the most significant consequences. Malnutrition can lead to stunted growth, weakened immune systems, and even death. Hunger also affects the ability of individuals to work and earn a living, perpetuating the cycle of poverty and hunger.
Addressing the issue of hunger requires a multi-faceted approach. Governments and international organizations must work together to address the root causes of hunger, including poverty, inequality, and conflict. Improving access to education and healthcare can also help reduce hunger by empowering individuals and communities to make informed decisions about their health and livelihoods. Additionally, investing in sustainable agriculture and infrastructure can help increase food production and reduce food waste.
In conclusion, hunger is a complex issue that affects millions of people worldwide. The causes of hunger are multifaceted, and the effects are devastating. Addressing the issue of hunger requires a multi-faceted approach, with governments, international organizations, and individuals working together to combat the root causes of hunger and ensure that everyone has access to nutritious food.
Happiness is defined as a state of well-being and contentment. It can be considered quite complex, in the sense, one’s happiness is dependent on a magnitude of internal and external factors. Now the question this poses, is how much of one’s happiness can be attributed to money. I mean can money buy happiness?
Get original essayPersonally, I had never really thought in depth about this subject, as whenever the topic arose, I would simply say no, for fear of being perceived as shallow if I even considered yes. It wasn’t until recently when I was listening to a song, I was encouraged to challenge my original assumption that money can’t buy happiness. This questioning was invoked by the following line. ‘Whoever said that money couldn’t make me happy was never broke and wouldn’t try to be’. This line really resinated with me and got me thinking about who was actually the first person to say that money can’t buy happiness and why did they come to this conclusion. I mean, if you’ve never been without money, how are you suppose to know the impact it has on one’s mental state. The sad truth about life is everything comes at a cost- money isn’t everything but everything needs money- and without the money to pay these costs its detrimental to one’s mind. Statistical speaking, household income is strongly related to both emotional well-being and a person’s evaluation of their own quality of life as money brings control, choice and security, which are considered prerequisites for the ‘happy’ life. Money demonstratively increases happiness levels as it takes a certain salary to feel financially secure. Having enough money means no anxiety when shopping at the grocery store, going out to eat or paying your rent. Although some argue money to be nothing more than paper and ink. When a man hands a cheque donation of one million dollars over to the church I’m sure the pastor is quite happy; when a women wins the lottery I’m sure it makes her she feel elated. Just think of the people who are dying in hospital because they can’t afford certain operations. Now tell them you will donate the money right away, and tell me they won’t be happy to hear the news. I dare anyone to receive a billion dollars and not smile from ear to ear like a little child who just received all the candy in the world. And to all the people that believe that in no way money can buy happiness, well how about you give me all your money and we will see how you go with none, then come back and tell me whether your happy or not.
Life in the twenty first century is a fast paced, consumer orientated experience where media surrounds us at all times enforcing the idea that happiness is a matter of buying the perfect house, driving the best car, wearing the trendiest clothes and posting status updates on the latest high-tech devices. Everywhere we look we are inundated with the same message: ‘Buy, buy, buy your way to happiness’. However, if money and materialistic objects were the key to happiness then why are so many rich celebrities on anti-depressants, trying to commit suicide, in and out of rehab etc.
Well, that my friends leads us into the other spectrum of this debate, the dark truth of money and its relationship with happiness. In the end it comes down to the fact that everything that money can buy is temporary; they are either objects or experiences that give pleasure for a specific amount of time. New clothes, a new car, a good restaurant: they are all unsustainable sources of pleasure as they all have a short life span. Money is an object just like everything else and objects cannot dictate happiness. It comes for a brief moment but never stays. When we use money to buy things, we adapt, then we’re on to find the next best thing to make us temporarily happy again and the vicious cycle starts over. The best example of money in relation to happiness is in the use of drugs like heroine. These drugs provide a kind of euphoria- a high. The high becomes lower and lower as your biochemistry adapts to the new happiness, meaning one has to take more and more of these drugs to get the same high. I’ll leave you today with the following quote, which I believe perfectly sums up this little discussion, ‘Money can’t buy happiness; it can, however, rent it’.