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Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Evaluation
3. Conclusion

Introduction

Watson and Rayner (1920) investigated classical conditioning, a behaviorist theory of learning. The researchers conditioned fear into little Albert and showed that fear can be learned. This research was ground-breaking as it demonstrated how phobias can be acquired at a young age. Although Albert was psychologically harmed Jones (1924) found fear could be unconditioned and so Watson and Rayner’s (1920) theory has been used to develop systematic desensitization (Wolpe, 1958). In this essay, I will describe Watson and Rayner (1920) and discuss potential criticisms and applications of their research.

Watson and Rayner (1920) aimed to research if fear can be conditioned if this fear can be generalized and if time has an effect on responses. They also aimed to find out how the conditioning could be removed. To investigate this Watson and Rayner (1920) used little Albert who was a healthy and unemotional child at the hospital where the study was conducted. Little Albert was presented with a white rat, rabbit, and other similar stimuli but none of these provoked a fear reaction. A hammer hit a steel bar when the rat was presented which caused Albert to cry. Over many trials, Albert began to show fear towards the rat without any loud noise. Here the unconditioned stimulus (the loud noise) was paired with a neutral stimulus (the rat) to produce the conditioned response (fear). So the researchers had conditioned Albert to fear the rat and they also found that the fear generalized to other objects. But Albert only showed fear to similar objects that were white and fluffy such as a Santa mask and so discriminated. The researchers also found that the same fear responses were still present after a time period but they were weaker.

Evaluation

Watson and Rayner (1920) did not test their fourth research aim to find out if the conditioning could be removed because little Albert left the hospital with his mother. But they had a theory that fear could be removed by combining the conditioned stimulus with a pleasant unconditioned stimulus during reconditioning. To test this theory Jones (1924) recruited little Peter who was afraid of rabbits. The rabbit was presented at a big distance from Peter who was given a cookie then the distance was gradually decreased (the successive approximation of conditioned stimulus). Peter learned not to fear the rabbit and so this supports Watson and Rayner’s (1920) theory as it suggests reconditioning does work. However, Peter also observed non-fearful children interacting with rabbits which are a confounding variable as it could mean the fear response was removed due to imitation and not classical conditioning.

A strength of reconditioning is that it has been used to develop systematic desensitization (Wolpe, 1958); a successful therapy for phobias. This is where the client is first taught relaxation techniques and then creates a fear hierarchy eg. Cartoon spider, a picture of a spider, touching a spider. The client works through the hierarchy relaxing at each stage; this way the client is reconditioned to associate the feared stimulus with relaxation, thus reducing fear. This therapy has proven to be successful. For example, Sturges and Sturges (1998) reported an 11-year-old girl was cured of her fear of elevators using systematic desensitization. Therefore, Watson and Rayner’s (1920) reconditioning theory has been applied to therapy to better people’s lives.

A criticism of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) study is that it is unethical. This is because little Albert was conditioned to fear objects which caused him psychological harm shown by his intense fear of the white rat and other similar objects. Furthermore, since little Albert left the hospital with his mother, the researchers did not have the opportunity to reverse the negative effects of this study. But whether Albert actually suffered any ill effects is unknown as his identity remains anonymous even though many researchers try to discover his identity (Beck, Levinson, and Irons (2009) believe that he was Douglas Merritte). Although Albert may have suffered harm and this study is considered unethical by modern standards until his identity is unknown we cannot be certain if he did suffer any negative consequences.

Conclusion

Watson and Rayner (1920) conducted a revolutionary study into classical conditioning which provided evidence on how fear can be conditioned. There are ethical concerns but the question of Albert’s identity still remains so we cannot tell whether these concerns are valid. Nonetheless, the benefits to our understanding and knowledge as well as applications to therapy seem to outweigh the costs.

Table of contents

1. Duties and Responsibilities
2. Educational Requirements
3. Skills and Abilities

Surveyors find exact measurements to find a properties boundary. They provide data relevant to the size, shape, and contour of the Earth’s surface for mapmaking, engineering and construction projects. Making measurements and determining a properties boundaries. Providing data relevant to the elevation, contour, gravitation, shape, location, or dimension of land or land features on the earth's surface for mining, engineering, construction, mapmaking, land evaluation, and other purposes. A surveyor determines properties legal boundaries. He or she provides data, and compiles legal documents called surveys, for construction, making maps, and real estate projects.

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Duties and Responsibilities

A surveyor prepares and maintains maps, sketches, and legal descriptions of surveys in order to certify, describe, and assume liability for work performed. Verify the accuracy of survey data, including the calculations conducted at survey sites. Direct or lead surveys in order to establish legal boundaries for properties, based on legal deeds and titles. Record the results of surveys, including the shape, contour, location, elevation, and dimensions of land or land features. Calculate heights, depths, relative positions, property lines, and other characteristics of terrain. Prepare or supervise preparation of all data, charts, plots, maps, records, and documents related to surveys. Write descriptions of property boundary surveys for use in deeds, leases, or other legal documents. Plan and conduct ground surveys designed to establish baselines, elevations, and other geodetic measurements.

Educational Requirements

Surveyors usually need a bachelor’s degree due to greater use of technology and mathematics. Some universities and colleges offer bachelor’s degree programs designed to prepare students to become licensed surveyors. A bachelor’s degree in a related field, such as forestry or civil engineering, is sometimes acceptable. Many states need individuals who want to become licensed surveyors to have a bachelor’s degree from a school accredited by ABET (formerly the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology). They need about 2 years of work experience under a licensed surveyor. In other states, an associate’s degree in surveying, paired with several years of work experience under a licensed surveyor. The amount of work experience required varies by state. Most states have continuing education requirements.

Skills and Abilities

A surveyor needs to have excellent science, math and engineering skills the ability to analyze and interpret graphical data. Excellent communication, negotiating and presentation skills. Also needs experience in certain areas of the wilderness. Needs to be able to understand when to go into the field. Needs the ability to use sound judgment in applying surveying principles and techniques in the resolution of problems caused by inadequate and inconclusive data Understanding of Federal land acquisition procedures.

An evening at the beach is what I want to write an essay on. When sitting on the beach an orange hue stretched across the sky and met the dark ocean along the horizon. The sky along with the orange hue had blends of reds and yellows melting into each other to create an astonishing skyline. The Aurelian sun looked as if it was resting upon the dark sea. Seagulls were soaring through the air and swooping down to land atop a sand dune. The clouds were a dark silhouette with bright gold beams of light radiating through. The waves had made a soothing crashing noise as if they were trying to soothe a soul. The gentle rhythmic motion of the waves satisfied the eye. When the tide edged closer to the shoreline the sun looked as if it was disappearing into the ocean. The waves were gradually getting more sizable as the sun continued to set.

As the waves crashed along the shore it had left seashells dispersed along the shoreline. The sand had felt warm under the feet of several individuals walking on the shore where the sand had met the waves. The grainy sand had looked like millions of sugar crystals. The grains looked a slight nude and clear color. This pale nude sand covered the whole beach as far as the eye could see along the vibrant beach. In the sand were vivacious umbrellas placed by the tourists who populated the immensely crowded beach. They were strategically colored with stripes of multiple different colors. There were sandcastles built everywhere by the children that were playing on the beach. Many tourists were wondering around, collecting seashells that were mixed with the sand. The seashells had been washed up onto the shore by the rough waves. Each shell had its own pattern, not any two shells looked the same. The shells along the beach were mostly whole clam shells but some were crushed and mixed heterogeneously. There were thousands of shells along the shore waiting for by passers to collect them.

The tourists had bags and pales full of shells that they had collected to take home with them. As the tourist continued to collect the shells the salty air blew against them. The sea air was thick with salt and humidity. As the wind blew against the cars and houses it left a residue on windows that looked like fog. When the wind blew it cooled down the hot, humid air. The now chilly air had given chills on the skin of sunburned tourists all along the coast. Whilst sitting on the grainy sand, watching the sun set into the sea, and listening to the sweet lullaby of the waves, a sense of total relaxation had occurred. This is avowed to be a perfect evening at the beach.

Works Cited

1. Bell, B., & Slade, J. (2019). The Beach Book: Science of the Shore. Columbia University Press.
2. Downs, R. M. (2018). The Sound of the Sea: Seashells and the Fate of the Oceans. University of Georgia Press.
3. Barbour, D. B., & Goddard, S. (Eds.). (2017). The Beach and the City: Aesthetic Urbanism in the Twenty-First Century. Lexington Books.
4. Harman, T. (2018). Waves and Beaches: The Powerful Dynamics of Sea and Coast. Reaktion Books.
5. Blum, J. D., & Roberts, S. J. (Eds.). (2016). From the Gulf to the Aral: The Long-Term Impacts of Climate Change and Human Activities. Geological Society of America.
6. Johnson, D. W., & LaTourrette, T. (Eds.). (2017). Making the Beach Safe for the Public: Risk, Responsibility, and Liability. Rowman & Littlefield.
7. Viles, H. A., & Spencer, T. (2018). Coastal Problems: Geomorphology, Ecology and Society at the Coast. Routledge.
8. Williams, A. T., & Clifford, N. J. (2017). Coastal and Marine Geospatial Technologies. Springer.
9. Bird, E. C. F. (2019). Coastal Geomorphology: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
10. Gehrels, W. R., & Pontee, N. (Eds.). (2018). Coastal Environments and Global Change. John Wiley & Sons.

In “Desert Places,” Robert Frost describes the snowfall upon a field as darkness falls in passing. By first impression, it seems to be a simplistic idealist image of nature. However, beneath the surface of the snow, Frost breathes darker undertones into this pastoral place. The dark undertones give away to feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, suffocation, and loneliness, all common symptoms of depression. “Desert Places” uses its wintry landscape’s elements as parallels to the symptoms and effects of mental depression.

Just as depression can quickly loom upon a person, the night comes upon the speaker admiring the field. The “night fall[s] fast, oh, fast” upon the speaker. The “oh” and the repetition of “fast” create a sense of hopelessness and uncontrollability of the situation. A common symptom of depression is hopelessness, and the fact that the speaker has no control over the night’s fall or the snowfall relates to this. “The loneliness includes [the speaker] unawares,” showing how little control the speaker has over the situation. They are unable to stop the loneliness from covering them like the night and snow cover the field. The speaker states “the ground [is] almost covered smooth in snow,” and that the “animals are smothered in their lairs.” Everything is encompassed by the snow, as the speaker is passively encompassed by the loneliness. The sense of covering, smothering, and suffocating parallels the effects of depression upon a person. They feel overwhelmed by depression, just as the field’s living creatures and plants are overwhelmed by the winter. In a sense, depression sends its sufferers into an emotional winter, stopping all life. The sense of suffocation also relates to the idea of burial and conjures ideas of death. It seems as if the burying of all these plants and animals relate to the burying of a dead person. Perhaps this can be seen as even suicidal. Everything in the field is being buried and covered, and parallels the many effects of depression.

The weaving rhyme scheme of AABA CCDC EEFE GGHG also creates the sense of covering over. If one were to draw a line in each stanza from each rhyming word to the next, it would create a bow over the third line, hovering over it. The prevailing rhyme of each stanza suffocates the one word that does not rhyme; it is lost in the sound of the dominant rhyme. Yet, each stanza’s rhyme scheme is independent of one another, showing the lack of connection between the speaker and their life. Although everything seems to click, it really does not. Although the pattern remains, the rhyming noise does not, and this only seems to show further the lack of connection between the speaker and their emotional state. Depression causes one to disconnect from their life and the rhyme scheme reflects such.

The speaker also states that they are “absent-spirited.” The “spirit” of one’s self is considered the breath of life, the animating or vital principle in man; yet the speaker realizes that theirs is withdrawn, and they have become passively a victim of the darkness, the loneliness, and depression. The fact that the speaker is to “absent-spirited to count” can mean many things. If we take the speaker to be Robert Frost, it could mean the counting of beats and feet within a poem. It also can mean to include in something, as in “count me in.” In this sense, the speaker would be addressing the fact that they are too withdrawn to be included in the activities of life. Again, this all parallels the effects of depression. The speaker is too withdrawn, too suffocated in their own emotional winter to be apart of whatever events and actions of their life. They are lost in their own winter field of depression; they are the foliage and animals smothered in depression’s darkness of snow. One cannot stop the sun from setting or the snow from falling, just as the speaker feels they cannot stop their depression.

There is so much movement throughout the first two stanzas even though there is nothing living in the field. The night is falling, the snow is falling, and the speaker is passing. The sense of movement creates restlessness in the poem, and puts the reader almost on edge, just as depression does to the sufferer. Frost succeeds in bringing the reader into the depression. The reader should also note that there is all this action without anything actually living. When one is depressed, they act without feeling, without life, just as nature is acting without anything living. The plants are dead beneath the snow, “the animals are smothered” beneath the snow. Everything seems to be moving, yet nothing is alive.

As the evening turns into the night, the snow clouds clear and the movement in the poem stops. In this pausing moment, the speaker reflects upon the unchanging blanket of snow and the stars in the sky. The speaker states that the “blanker whiteness of benighted snow” has “no expression” and “nothing to express.” “Benighted” here can literally mean the how the field is overtaken by the darkness of the night, but can also figuratively mean being involved in intellectual or moral darkness. The darkness leaves the snow and the speaker expressionless and blank, and even leaves them with “nothing to express.” This relates to depression’s ability to take away the enjoyment of life and create the feeling of numbness. The stars left in the sky only seem to emphasize the empty spaces between them to the speaker. The speaker does not address their hopeful light perhaps, or their beauty, he only connects them to the empty space of the field and loneliness. There is no human race up there, there is no companionship, and again the loneliness prevails. He personifies all the natural elements stating, “They cannot scare me with their empty spaces.” The speaker is reflecting here that all the darkness and loneliness of nature is nothing compared to the darkness and loneliness of their mind. He states, “I have it in me so much nearer home/To scare myself with my own desert places.” Just as the snow leaves the field deserted and dark, depression does the same to the sufferer.

However, the last stanza can also be seen as ironically positive in comparison to the previous stanzas. If the wintery landscape is a metaphor for depression, then the fact that its empty spaces do not scare the speaker can be seen as a good thing. Perhaps the speaker is saying that beyond all this there is hope that he will prevail over this. In addition, “desert” can also mean deserving and worthy of merit. Perhaps the speaker using the word’s double meaning ironically, to state how it is the dark, uninhabited places of himself that make him worth of merit. Perhaps it is not the desolation within him that scares him, but rather the meritoriousness within him that does. The statement “And lonely as it is that loneliness/Will be more lonely ere it will be less” shows that the speaker believes that it can only get worse before it can better. The reader can see this as positive; perhaps the speaker realizes this loneliness and depression will lift.

The many contrasting images in the poem continue bouncing the reader between juxtaposing ideas. The darkness of night contrasts itself upon the whiteness of the snow, the stars show bright against a dark sky, and a wet snowy wintery field parallels to a dry desert. The brightness of the stars, however, only emphasizes the dark spaces between them for the speaker, and that sense of negativity really completes the parallel between this winter scene and depression. Although there glimmers hope for the speaker to realize that it must be dark before it can be light, for the speaker it seems that the light only emphasizes the suffocating night.

This winter landscape of “Desert Places” describes the landscape of depression—dark, cold, and frozen. Depression is helpless. It is hopeless and it is suffocating. The sufferer is withdrawn, they are restless, they are lifeless, and they are numb. Robert Frost successful draws the reader into the speaker’s loneliness and affectively recreates the emotional devastation of depression. The reader is only left to wonder if the speaker ever finds their way out of their desert places. The few contrasting moments of brightness and the idea that things must get worse before they can get better ironically show a positive light to the distress of depression. Frost uses “Desert Places” to bring his audience into depression, making it more than just a simple bad day, but something to be taken seriously.

Table of contents

1. Abstract
2. Background
Objectives
3. A Brief History Of Solar furnace

Abstract

This project is about the design and construction of a concentrated solar furnace. The basic aim of the report is to provide information about the design and working principles of a solar furnace. The project utilized a parabolic concentrator and we designed the furnace in a cylindrical shape with steel for its body and an outer copper lid. To improve the efficiency of the furnace in this project, copper fins were attached inside to enhance heat transfer within the furnace. After manufacturing and assembly, we tested the furnace with and without fins and there was a difference noticed after recordings done at 20 minutes interval. The inner air temperatures recorded after 20 minutes was 55 without fins and 65 with fins. During the testing, the maximum temperature recorded inside the furnace was around 173 (air temperature) and 238 (fin tip temperature); these temperatures are high enough to be used in various domestic applications such as cooking.

Background

Solar energy is undoubtedly the oldest source of energy. It is basically the radiant light and heat from the sun. We can however trace all other forms of energy used on earth back to the sun. Harnessing the solar energy has been the aim of various researches for many years. We believe that resources for fossil based fuels such as oil and coal are limited and soon they will vanish. Many scientists are working to use solar energy for different purposes.

The history of solar energy is as old as mankind and over the past two centuries this energy has become increasingly used either directly to produce electricity or in applications to satisfy different needs of mankind. One of such applications is in the production of solar furnaces which could be used for many purposes. A solar furnace is a structure that uses concentrated solar power to produce high temperatures, usually for industry. Parabolic mirrors or heliostats concentrate light onto a focal point. The temperature at the focal point may reach very high temperatures, and this heat can be used to generate electricity, melt steel, and make hydrogen fuel or nano-materials. A solar furnace uses reflectors to channel and concentrate solar energy thus producing heat. The sizes of solar furnaces could range from small to large depending on the desired heat needs. In the past, around the 7th century, people used magnifying glasses in simple form to generate concentrated light from the sun and use this domestically in making wood to catch fire for cooking. However over the years, modifications and improvements in the field of technology have led to the production of more sophisticated solar furnaces. The largest solar furnace is at Odeillo in the Pyrenees-Orientales in France, opened in 1970.

Objectives

The main aim of this project is to design and construct a working solar furnace. The major objective of the solar furnace design will be to generate heat from solar radiation as a high intensity energy source for high temperature processes. In this project the aim is to produce temperatures high enough to be used in cooking applications whether for domestic or industrial uses. 1.3 Limitations and Scope A viable option for this technology is that which this project will be limited to; producing temperatures high enough to cause combustion of wood (carbonization) and also efficient enough to aid cooking in homes. The constituents of a solar furnace will be well documented as the economic benefits of solar furnaces are huge. Nevertheless one constraint to its production is high initial start-up costs but conversely once started there is only little operational costs needed to continue. By replacing conventional furnaces, like electric arc and blast furnaces, with a solar furnace operating at high temperatures, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and energy consumption will be reduced greatly, which will better our society immensely. This project will discuss the topic of solar furnace in details by first giving details of other research work done on the subject- literature review, then enumerating the methodology, design and calculations of this project and then ends with a conclusion and discussion part.

A Brief History Of Solar furnace

A solar furnace is not actually a furnace but only implies an optical system which has solar radiation been received from a collector and concentrates it into a small area. In a case where this highly concentrated radiant energy is channeled into a cavity, high temperatures are obtained due to the heat generated. Actually, it is this cavity that is the furnace and it represents a small part of the entire system, hence it is not out of place, to call solar furnaces: - solar energy concentrators.

The idea of using solar energy to produce high temperatures is not new. In 212 B.C. Archimedes presumably set fire to the Roman fleet by concentrating the sun's rays on the ships by means of several hundred plane mirrors. In the 17th and 18th centuries both mirrors and lenses were used, and in 1772 Lavoisier built a furnace with a collecting lens having a diameter of about 5 feet, in which he almost reached the melting point of platinum (1773? C). After the work of Lavoisier, until the beginning of the twentieth century, solar furnaces were completely ignored. However in 1921 Straubel and his collaborators at the Zeiss Company in Germany constructed the first modern reflecting furnace. This was done with a glass parabolic mirror of about 6 feet diameter, and focal length of 2 feet; at the end temperatures above 3000?C were generated. This paved way for the use of different sizes of parabolic mirrors. Straubel had another collaborator in the person of W. Conn, he built a 10 foot furnace and this was installed at Rockhurst College in Kansas USA. This furnace is made of aluminum alloy sheet and is still operational at Convair in San Diego and is used for high temperature materials studies. More so, searchlight mirrors of around 5 feet diameter are good concentrators and are in operation in numerous laboratories in the United States.

The largest installation of solar furnaces of various sizes is located in Montlouis in the French Pyrenees. Professor FelixTrombe, head of the laboratory for the study of solar energy, has six furnaces in operation and these are made of German parabolic searchlight mirrors. They are 6.5 feet in diameter and also there is one large furnace which is 35 feet in diameter. The large size reflector is made of 3500 smaller plane mirrors, attached to a steal frame which is parabolic in shape. To get a better focusing, each mirror used is bent mechanically and a curvature closes to 4 that of an ideal parabola is attained. Another larger furnace has been produced, this is more than 100 feet in diameter and after design its reflecting components have been tested. The power of this large installation is about 1000kW. Furthermore, Professor Guillemonat adopted W. Conn’s design and built a 27 feet diameter furnace in Algiers New Orleans. The parabola for this furnace was made of 144 panels of electro polished aluminum formed to the required curvature. Other notable works in this field includes that of the old soviet Russia, in which a large solar energy research laboratory was installed near Tachkent; however these were low temperature furnaces and no report has exists about solar furnaces designed especially for high temperatures. Lavoisier’s furnace was not the only one built to concentrate the sun’s energy by means of a lens. Between 1930 and 1932 the California institute of technology (Caltech) built a lens furnace and this was spear-headed by George Ellery Hale and its purpose was to achieve high temperatures for spectroscopic studies.This furnace is now positioned on the roof of the Caltech astrophysics department, and it is currently used for high temperature materials research. Furthermore, anyone conversant with the field of high temperatures will find out that the performances of already existing solar furnaces are not spectacular. It is possible to generate temperatures within the range of 3000? C through many different techniques: - these include, induction heating, melting in neutral atmosphere, electrical resistance heating, flames and so on. These techniques however have a limitation because they require a specific type of atmosphere around the specimen under study. Whereas for the solar furnaces, heat source is in form of a cone of radiation energy that can be termed as pure heat and this does not impose any restriction to the kind of atmosphere that surrounds the specimen. Another interesting feature of solar furnaces is that, the temperature obtainable at the focal area is concentrated and generates a high heat flux. Solar furnaces have the unique characteristic of being able to heat a body from inside to outside and this is useful in melting refractory substances which react very rapidly with crucible materials at high temperatures.

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The Caltech furnace project makes use of the two outstanding features mentioned above. The first project is an investigation of highly refractory thorium oxide and zirconium oxide which have melting temperatures of 3200? C and 2700? C respectively. They melt these compositions in air at the focus of the furnace and assume oxidizing atmosphere around the melt. The second project is concerned with ceramic body structures and it is based on mixtures of titanium and zirconium dioxides, in which oxygen is usually lower than it should be. The California institute of technology (Caltech) solar furnace has nineteen lenses; they are each two feet in diameter, arranged hexagonally and pointed towards the sun.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Steps in Fixture Design
3. Fixture design
4. Conclusion

Fixtures are the production tools which make the standard machine tool, more adaptive to work as specialized machine tools. Manufacturing industries have brought lot of revolutions in manufacturing technology, as a consequence of which several developments like CNC lathes, CNC machine center, robotics etc. have been developed. The fixture should be designed to adopt cost effective manufacturing process so that it can be machined easily with a lesser time. The various methodology and applications by various authors are reviewed in this paper.

Index Terms—Hydraulic fixture; accuracy; Universal Fixture; Productivity

Introduction

A fixture is a work holding or supporting device used in manufacturing industry during a machining operation. Fixtures are essential elements of mass production as they are required in most of the automated manufacturing operations. The origin of fixtures can be traced back to the Swiss watch and Clock industry. The design of a fixture is a highly complex and challenging process. Hydraulic fixture provides the manufacturer for flexibility in holding forces and increased accuracy, precision, reliability, and interchangeability in parts. A clamping system that uses high-pressure liquids to power clamps and hold a work piece in place is called a HYDRAULIC FIXTURE.

Steps in Fixture Design

A proper definition of the functional requirements forms the base of the fixture design. The main task for fixture is to make the loading and unloading process simple and reduce the rejection rate. Preliminary analysis may take a few hours to several days for complicated fixture designs. Fixture design is a five-step problem-solving process. The steps are discussed in detail-

Step 1: Define Requirements

To begin with the fixture design, a clear statement of the need of the fixture should be stated. The requirements should be stated as broadly as possible to understand the problems. The designer should know the basics like ‘is the tooling be started from existing one or a completely new tooling be designed?’

Step 2: Gather Information

Collect all relevant data. The main sources of information are the part description, process sheets, and machine specifications. A thorough study of CNC machine and component drawing should be done. Work-piece specifications, operation variables, availability of equipment, and personnel must be taken into account at this stage only.

Step 3: Develop Multiple Options

This step of the process requires maximum creativity and also some experience. A designer should brainstorm for several good tooling alternatives, not just stick to one path only. The designer’s aim at this point should be in adding options and not deleting or discarding. At first the designer should draw the component and the locating points before considering sketching of the clamping devices.

Step 4: Choose the Best Option

The total cost to manufacture the product will be sum of raw material set-up and tooling cost. This can be expressed in terms of a formula:

Designer must be able to take the decision on which is the best suited model among his alternatives. To take these decisions one must take into account both the economics and ergonomics of the design.

Step 5: Implement the Design

The final step of the fixture-design process consists of reproducing the chosen design approach into reality. Final details are decided, final drawings are made, and the tooling is built and tested. Tolerances should also be mentioned. The following guidelines should be considered in improving its efficiency.

Important factors to be considered while designing a fixture:

• a. Study of workpiece and geometry
• b. Type and capacity of the machine
• c. e. Availability of indexing devices and their accuracy.
• d. f. Evaluation in the performance results of the machine.
• e. g. Rigidity of the machine tool under consideration. f.
• h. Study of ejecting devices, safety devices, etc.
• g. Required level of the accuracy in the work and quality to be produced.

Design of fixture whether it is manual or hydraulic is the same. The structure of the fixture must be sufficiently rigid and heavy to avoid deformations and vibrations produced during machining.

A. Principles of Locations The location refers to the establishment of a desired relationship between the workpiece and the fixture. The purpose of locations is to clamp the workpiece so as to restrict the movement of body in as much directions as possible. For a rigid work piece in space, there are six degrees of freedom describing the position and orientation of the work piece, as shown. They have three linear motions and three rotational motions. Fig. Degrees of Freedom of a Workpiece Guohua Qin et al., focuses on the fixture clamping sequence. J Cecil proposed an innovative clamping design approach.

B. Common locating principle is: 3-2-1 principle: Three locating pins are inserted in the base of the fixed body which arrests five degrees of freedom. Two more pins are inserted in a vertical plane of fixed body which restricts three more degrees of freedom. Another pin in the second vertical face of fixed body, arrests the other one. And remaining three degrees of freedom may be arrested by means of a clamping device. This method of locating a workpiece in a fixture is called the “3-2-1” principle or “six point location” principle.

C. Clamping Principle The main purpose of clamping is to hold the wokpiece rigidly against the locators during machining operations. The basic needs of a clamping system should be·- clamping should be easy, quick and consistent, clamping should not be affected by vibration or heavy pressure The workpiece being clamped should not be damaged due to application of clamping pressure While handling fragile components, the clamps should be provided with fiber pads.

D. Types of clamps Clamps must be selected very carefully according to the type of material and loading and unloading procedure. It also depends on the area of application of clamp on the workpiece. Some common different types of clamps available are listed below:

• - Strap Clamp
• - Heel Clamp
• - Bridge Clamp
• - Screw Clamp
• - Power Driven Clamping
• - Equalizing Clamps
• - Latch Clamp

Fixture design

To reduce design costs associated with fixturing, various clamping methods have been developed through the years to assist the fixture designer. Design of fixture whether it is manual or hydraulic is the same.

Any work holding fixture must fulfill three basic functions:

1) Position the component accurately.

2) Support the component accurately.

3) Clamp the component accurately.

For designing fixture it is necessary to study component details which include part geometry, machining process, design and interpretation rules for the machining fixture. The fixture must meet the customer needs and budget. In terms of constraints, there are many factors to be considered, mainly dealing with: shape and dimensions of the part to be machined, tolerances, sequence of operations, machining strategies, cutting forces, number of set-ups, set-up times, volume of material to be removed, batch size, production rate, machine morphology, machine capacity, cost, etc. At the end, the solution can be characterized by its: simplicity, rigidity, accuracy, reliability, and economy.

For making a fixture following steps involved are

• • Analytical design for fixture.
• • 3-D modeling in any of the modeling software (preferably PRO-E CREO, Solidworks)
• • Assembly
• • Analysis by using analysis software (preferably ANSYS).

If a fixture is pre-existing then the locations of the clamping points would be known, and it reduces the work of finding centroid of component and finding suitable locating and clamping points.

Criteria for Material Selection of Fixture

- Mechanical Properties

The material must possess a certain strength and stiffness. Selected materials are examined for strength and stiffness values

- Wear of Materials

It must be ensured that the selected materials have sufficient wear resistance.

- Corrosion

It is an important engineering design criterion for designs open to the environment for a longer period of time

- Ability to Manufacture

The material is well capable of using for the design, it may be difficult to manufacture.If this selection criteria is neglected the manufacture process might be very costly making it unprofitable as a commercial product.

- Cost

Cost is a critical fact to consider when selecting materials for a certain design for most products because they are facing a severe competition in the market.

The parts of fixture generally are:

A.Fixture Base Plate

B.Supporting Cylinder

C. Clamp and Hydraulic circuit

Fixture Base Plate

While designing base plate total length should be considered. By using the Roark’s Formula shown in for plate design the base of fixture is designed. Using this formula we can calculate the thickness of the plate and stress. Also deflection at centre is calculated. Usually the material for base plate, supporting cylinder and clamp are taken the same. Fig. Roark’s Formula After the calculation of the stresses in the plate it should be compared with the allowable stress of the material. And the plate should be safe in design. Once we get the dimensions and material, we create the model in the modeling software.

Supporting Cylinder

Hydraulic cylinders are manufactured by custom requirements or ready available cylinders are available according to the force specification. These cylinders are known as ZPS (Zero Point System) modules. These ZPS modules are to be supported by supporting cylinders which are designed using modeling software and then imported into ANSYS for analysis and verification for a safe design. The results in ANSYS are compared with the materials strength. There is no specific methods to design the supporting cylinders and hence designed for the suitable dimensions according to the module dimensions.

The module is fixed to the component by means of nipples which are inserted into this module and clamped with the hydraulic pressure. From a layout point of view, cylinders have six basic functional requirements:

Clamp

Clamping mostly depends on cutting forces Clamping force = Where, FHC- holding force Cylinder bore size = d mm Piston area = 0.785 d² Therefore, the required cylinder output force is obtained and selected.

Hydraulic Circuit

A hydraulic circuit is a system comprising an interconnected set of discrete components that transport liquid. Circuit is the routing and control of a confined liquid to apply power. This power is used to achieve a specific function resulting in work being performed. Before the hydraulic circuit can be designed, the following things must be defined

Depending on the cutting forces and requirements the number of hydraulic cylinders required for the fixture assembly is determined. After the selection of cylinders the final assembly is done on the base plate and the hydraulic lines and circuits are arranged and made ready for use.

Analysis

Analysis of fixture components is done in ANSYS for displacements and stresses individually. Then the complete assembled model is analyzed and checked for the stresses. The stresses developed should be below the allowable fracture strength.

Base structure Analysis

Displacement Result

Stress Result

Fixture Bod Fixture assembly

According to Deepak D. Pawar and Dr. M. M.Tayde The cost savings calculated for manual and hydraulic fixture is huge and in support of this statement a table formed is shown Time taken for machining one component with manual fixture =35hrs Cost of machining with manual fixture =35*600= Rs.21000 Labor cost for machining one component=35*50= Rs.1750 Set-up cost=8*50*2=Rs.800 Variable cost of one component with manual fixture=Rs.23550 Time taken for machining with ZPS fixture =21hrs Cost of machining with ZPS fixture =21*600= Rs.12600 Labor cost for machining one component =21*50= Rs.1050 Variable cost of one component using ZPS fixture=12600+1050= Rs.13650 Profit/component = (23550-13650) =Rs.9900 Another cost justification of using hydraulic fixtures is given by Komal Barge, Smita Bhise as COST JUSTIFICATION TABLE

By using this fixture Rs.80000 will be saved in one month. Hence the objectives set at the first will be satisfied if one follows the procedure.

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Conclusion

Implementation of these fixtures eliminates the need of human operator for clamping of manifolds. It reduces the cycle time. The hydraulic fixture will not only provides the repeatability and high productivity, but also offers a solution, which reduces work-piece distortion due to clamping and machining forces. Fixtures have direct impact on product manufacturing quality, productivity and cost. It also gives the accuracy within 10 to 15 micron and now this is the requirement of any component or work-piece after machining. To fulfill the multifunctional and high performance fixturing requirements optimum design approach can be used to provide comprehensive analyses and determine an overall optimal design.

In 21st century, for any company, firm, organization or institution a virtual presence away from its physical location is imperative for economic survival. To assist this purpose, these entities have developed webpages that they run on the World Wide Web, also commonly known as the internet. The internet is a resource that allows customers and companies to conduct business and enables transactions of all natures from around the globe. To be able to interact with a wide range of people, a webpage has to successfully serve its intended purpose by being interactive and user-friendly. Which is not an easy task and demands the designers to come up with a friendly website. A user interface should conveniently work on all devices that are accessing it and cater to a wider array of platforms. This makes the user interface design process is one of the most challenging aspect of setting up an efficient and comprehensive webpage.

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Web designing is split up into two sections; front-end and the back-end. Front-end is the part which is usually considered the face of the website, it is ideally what the online users of a website view and interact with. Front-end developers are usually expected to have a strong grip on programming languages such as HTML, JavaScript and JQuery. The second section is the back-end of the website, which is considered the server of the website. The back-end connects to the front end through models and uses databases to competently carry out the intended purpose of the website. Back-end developers are usually well trained in, but not limited to Java, PHP, Python, SQL and .Net (Stewart, 2015).

From a purely designing point of view, front-end is considered to be much more sophisticated and complex than the back-end. The reason offered for it is that back-end design deals with how the website is running and serving its function. It is only subject to the approval of the developers and their supervisors (Sonmez, 2018). On the other hand, front-end designing is a much more intricate affair. The front-end is supposed to be subject to the experiences of hundreds, thousands or in some cases up to millions of users a day. For example in the first quarter of 2018, Facebook Inc. witnessed 1.47 billion users accessing their platform a day (Statista, 2018). If there is an enormous traffic of users trying to visit the site, it is important for the designers to make sure that the application is pleasant to look at and that it can easily render services that the clients/users would like to avail even if they are not particularly adept at using the internet otherwise the company will be at a strategic disadvantage (Bloc, 2016).

For a designer to make a decision about the layout of the website, it is important to know the four major website layouts; namely fixed, fluid, responsive and adaptive, and how they stack against each other. Static or fixed design is the type of web design which is stringent in its attributes with regards to measurements, dimensions and other content properties. Which means that no matter what browser or software is used to access the material on the fixed page, it will be independent of the changes that take place in the browser with respect to dimensions. Early on during the inception of the websites, fixed web designs were more appropriate because cellphones, tablets and other wireless devices were not commonly used and only one version of the website was needed to be designed. It allowed to add content to pages without worrying much about rendering it perfectly because it was only intended for use on desktops and large tablets since the hardware was ideal to display the website. It was mostly favored for its ease of creation but with the advent of smart phones and other interactive electronics, it was discouraged by developers because of its inflexible nature. Since websites would not offer similar services to these devices, developers had to create separate websites each platform which resulted in extra work. (Spencer, 2018).

Fluid web design is based on the concept of using relative units. Unlike static websites, fluid web designs do not use units such as pixels, instead they are designed using percentages. When fluid web designed websites are accessed on smartphones or other smaller electronic devices, the content of the page automatically adjusts to the dimensions of the hardware. The outcome is a much more user friendly platform compared to static web designs. However, fluid designs have their own set of problems. The most commonly cited problem is that once a media file is uploaded to the website, if the browser in which the website is viewed is too big or too small, it can create resolution problems and the media will not work as envisioned by the uploader (Dawson 2015). For instance, if a video clip is played on a screen much bigger than the desktop originally designed for, the resolution will not be optimum thus the experience will be unsatisfactory.

The third major layout available to developers is known as the responsive web design. The responsive web design (abbreviated as RWD) became popular in the later years of the last decade when an increasing number of people started using smaller wireless devices. More people connected to the internet and businesses saw a potential in attending to the needs of these masses. The responsive web layout is the kind of design which is receptive to the device the user is using to view the website. For instance, if the content of a page is viewed on a bigger desktop which has a much better resolution and more canvas size, the server identifies the changes and makes the website adjust to it respectively. The reason why RWD is able to do that is fluid gridding. Fluid grid is a design or layout that is able to withstand shear stress from the screen size or user device, which means that fluid gridding allows designs to adjust to the device or screen size and adapt to the user environment while retaining optimal viewing experience (1stWebDesigner, 2016). It prompts developers to create a single website serving users on a wider range of platforms. RWD layouts are much more complex to create because it requires an in-depth knowledge of the programming languages to make the best use of the options available.

The last major website designing option is called the adaptive web design. Adaptive web designs (abbreviated as AWD) may seem virtually indistinguishable from a responsive web design to a casual user because they offer almost the same experience, but unlike RWD, adaptive web designs are not fluid. Instead, the developers anticipate the nature of the devices that are going to be used to access the website and write the necessary code beforehand for the devices. The code stays inside the server and is not accessed until it is requested by the device operated by the user. After the request is sent to the server, the server responds by displaying the appropriate layout for that particular device. One particular caveat for the AWD is when new devices are introduced and users avail the services of these devices to access the website, the website may not properly load on the new devices because the AWD code was not ready for this new platform (Harris, 2015). Developers need to be cautious while making a decision about the layout of the website because it is the developing block of a functional website.

In order to create a layout that is user-friendly, developers have to come up with multiple models that later progress into the website. This is one of the most important part of the entire process. The process of prototyping is one way in which the developers of a website try to create a mock system and then build upon it the base of the original web page. There are two types of prototyping, evolutionary and throw-away. Evolutionary prototyping is based on gradual feedback and improvement until and unless all the correctable issues are fixed (Teach-ICT, 2018). One of the most common evolutionary prototyping is paper prototyping. Paper prototyping is inexpensive, quick and easily alterable. For example, if a group of amateur developers is starting to plan out a design for a webpage, they should start with paper prototyping. It allows more options in a rather short span of time. If the group does not like a particular element in a design they can simply get rid of it. It is smarter that the designing process is completed and meticulously tested before it goes into coding.

The other prototyping methodology is called throw-away prototyping. The goal of throw-away or rapid prototyping is to quickly develop a feature, evaluate it and then implement it. A big problem with the rapid prototyping is that once the feedback is accepted and put to use, the original suggestion is thrown away (Teach-ICT 2018). However it is favored by some developers because of its speed in the short run, even though it can cause much more trouble in the future. For example if there is a designing predicament later at any stage, there is no way to access the original idea because it was thrown away, which puts the designers in an uncomfortable situation and they are expected to retain a lot of information from previous steps. This also means that front-end developers need to be thoughtful in their designs.

The thinking process behind designing a website is based on the priorities and needs of the users. In the beginning, the front end designer needs to imagine what it feels like to be in the user’s shoes and how the website could be as impactful as possible. There is a tendency to assume a lot of things about the users which lead to logical design flaws. To illustrate, the developers may create an input field that only works when integers are entered but if the user ends up entering decimals the result may differ. Developers need to allocate considerable amount of time for the designing process.

After making the decision regarding the design, the developer’s task has only begun. The impending task is to code the webpage in one of the many resources available, such as cloud9, atom and pycharm etc. The job of the developers is not only to create the website which accomplishes the goals but also to be as efficient as possible in doing so. For example, instead of writing a line of code 30 or so times, there could only be one for loop which goes through the entire table of elements and accomplishes the exact same task, this approach is known as dynamic coding. Dynamic coding is the type of coding which allows flexibility in the system. It takes information in and processes it while retaining the results (Garg, 2018). The data from the outcome can be used elsewhere, which saves the developer from wasting a lot of energy and time in hard-coding.

Designing a website is not merely selecting the best format or coming up with the most efficient code, it extends way beyond that. The options to add details to the front-end are virtually unlimited. There is an endless list of items that a developer can add to the website. For example, in order to present a list of options to select, there are multiple elements that can be used. A notification window which appears on the screen and allows the users to interact with it, usually by blocking view of any other distractions in the background is called a pop-up. The same purpose can be served by a modal dialog. A modal can have multiple buttons and can be populated with much more information without intimidating the user. Along the same line of elements is an alert box, which is a message that requires immediate consideration. It is one of the most obnoxious elements for the users but is tremendously helpful for the front-end developer to get the user to do a task right away. Then there are expandables or commonly known as accordions, which can be hosted inside a table or hidden behind a certain row, serving its task when called upon using an onclick tag in the html.

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Given all these choices, it is not hard to imagine the complications involved in making a decision regarding the design of a particular website. It can take weeks to create a design which is foolproof and user-friendly. Not only are the developers expected to ensure that the website is going to work on almost all the hardware devices available to the users but also to make sure that the user interface is aesthetically pleasing. The process is long, challenging and exhausting, and a single bug can cause upheaval in the system. There are numerous things that need to be taken into consideration before the website goes live and that is why it is safe to say that the design process is arguably the most important part of the creating a website.

American poets Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are best known for their confessional works, in which they express their inner desires and urges. Both poets reflect their own unique qualities through choice of style, form, and language, as they discuss their feelings of sexual dissatisfaction and longing. Dickinson and Whitman stand on opposite ends of the poetic spectrum in terms of their expression of desire, which is clearly reflected in Dickinson’s “Wild Nights—Wild Nights!” and Whitman’s eleventh section of “Song of Myself.” Each poem addresses a different model of desire, contains different language and structure, and describes different ways in which desires are fulfilled. While both poems may appear quite distinct from one another, there is one steady similarity to consider. In the two poems, Dickinson and Whitman coalesce through their expressions of separation and expulsion from one’s somatic desires.

Emily Dickinson’s “Wild Nights—Wild Nights!” is commonly known as her most erotic poem. The title of the poem itself signifies a sense of mental and sexual release as the word “wild” is often affiliated with untamed freedom and a loss of self-control, and “night” is known as a time of darkness and secrecy as the consciousness of society dims with the ticking hours. The title ends with an exclamation point, which indicates forcefulness and intensity, as if the speaker is full of excitement, passion, or anger. Such emotions are directed towards a particular unnamed individual/lover, in which the speaker refers to as “thee.” This model of desire is singular and specific, a common poetic trait of Dickinson. The individual is absent, which causes the speaker great dissatisfaction and displeasure. The only way the speaker will be fulfilled is if the individual is physically with her rather than symbolically: “Wild nights… Were I with thee” (3-4). Dickinson uses nautical imagery throughout the second half of the poem to describe the rough, sensual wind and ocean-like energy in which the speaker wants to create with her lover: “Wild nights should be our luxury! Futile – the winds…Ah, the sea!” (3-10). If the speaker’s lover was physically present, they would create their own stormy, “wild nights” of sexual passion, indulgence, and privilege. The stability of their love allows the speaker’s heart to remain “in port,” as if she is a boat sitting over calm water (6). Their love also does not require a “compass” or a “chart,” meaning there is no need for any source of control or reason; it is untamed like nature itself. The speaker then imagines the pleasures of “Rowing in Eden,” (9) which connects sensuality and eroticism to earthly paradise. The poem closes with forceful and urgent lines: “Might I but moor—Tonight—In thee!” (11-12). The speaker wants this pleasure tonight, not any other day; however this will not happen as her lover is nowhere in sight. Thus, she is left unfulfilled as she can only dream of the sexual satisfaction in which the presence of her lover claims to provide.

While the subject matter of the “Wild Nights—Wild Nights!” is not necessarily conservative or reticent, the way Dickinson expresses such provocative, carnal material is quite compressed as she hides it under nautical elements which appear nonsexual at first glance. The structure of the poem is condensed and brief, containing only a few words in every line, which parallels with Dickinson’s desire to keep her poetry and deep thoughts private and contained. Compression is Dickinson’s unique method of thinking, as it draws attention to silence and the unsaid. There are multiple dashes throughout the poem, which formalize the silence in what cannot be said to the self or to the lover. Like many of her other poems, this poem is one of lyric solitude. The speaker and the lover are the only figures in the poem, however there is no actual conversation between them, which provides a more remote tone, as if the mind is thinking alone. Silence itself becomes Dickinson’s way of mastering feelings, which intensifies the speaker’s demand for erotic pleasure and the tortuous pain of receiving none.

Walt Whitman does not display any repression of eroticism in his poetry. The eleventh section of “Song of Myself” strictly focuses on bodily and physical desire, as it includes multiple anatomical descriptions of the male body. The speaker in the poem is a removed observer, identified as a woman through the use of the female pronouns “she” and “her.” A dramatic vignette is presented within the first lines: “Twenty-eight young men bathe by the shore” as a lonesome woman watches, hidden behind the blinds of her window (1). This woman is a member of the upper class, as she owns a “fine house by the rise of a bank” and “hides handsome and richly drest” (4-5). The woman fantasizes of participating in the men’s joy and playfulness, referring to herself as the “twenty-ninth bather” (10). Like Whitman himself, the woman enjoys observation and experiences sexual release through conjoining with other individuals. The imagery of the poem suddenly becomes erotic as Whitman begins to describe the physical assets of the men as they bathe: “the beards of the young men glisten’d with wet, it ran from their long hair, little streams pass’d all over their bodies” (12-13). The woman’s fantasy grows deeper as she then imagines herself as an “unseen hand” that sensually touches each man’s body, which deepens the woman’s desire for an intimate physical connection. Like the speaker in Dickinson’s poem, she never obtains the true pleasure she craves; she can only mentally experience such sexual satisfaction, as she remains secluded in her house. However, she does not appear to experience any frustration as the poem still ends within a sexual fantasy: “they do not know who puffs and declines with pendant and bending arch, they do not think whom they souse with spray” (18-19).

Neither speaker receives physical intimacy, however Whitman’s speaker does experience some form of fulfillment towards the end of the poem while Dickinson’s speaker is left in only discontent. As stated previously, Whitman does not show difficulty in expressing eroticism. His model of desire is all-inclusive, as he refers to each of the twenty-eight bathers as the poetic other. The structure of the poem is free flowing and elaborate, containing multiple short stanzas. There are no dashes or periods, indicating a sense of openness, generativity, and expansion. His language is strictly observational and unembellished, only describing the real and physical aspects of his environment. There is no sense of regularity or concern towards propriety, which provides the poem with rawness and carelessness, demonstrating Whitman’s strong aspiration to share his inner desires with the public world. A sense of fulfillment and hope appears through the closing lines of the poem, ultimately reflecting Whitman’s determination to discover pleasure through simple visual examinations of the ordinary world. Dickinson keeps her desires and urges repressed and contained through a first-person narrative, which transforms her speaker’s physical cravings into one strong spiritual yearning. Whitman transmits his speaker’s desires and urges through a dramatic scene, which transforms his cosmic self into a living phenomenon. The way in which each poet achieves the fulfillment of desire is extremely different. However, the ego of the speaker in both poems is restricted, either voluntarily or involuntarily, causing an immediate detachment from their desires.

Once detached, both speakers are left only to imagine satisfaction, which in itself creates a new form of thrill and pleasure; however, it is not the same. The sensual tone of Dickinson’s “Wild Nights—Wild Nights!” portrays the speaker’s deep passion for her lover and her yearning for physical intimacy. Like Whitman, Dickinson uses environmental images such as water and wind to illustrate the beauty and allure of somatic contact and movement. Both speakers feel the same yearnings, yet they do not directly achieve them. In Dickinson’s case, her speaker’s lover is not physically present, which causes her yearning to grow deeper. Her speaker does not attempt to contact or search for her lover; she remains removed and distant, which indicates a sense of shame or hesitation towards her desires. Whitman’s speaker portrays similar behavior as she does not leave her house to physically join the bathers, remaining hidden and locked within her imagination, only able to fantasize of her satisfaction. Despite different methods of erotic expression, both speakers act upon their desires through physical detachment and receive similar consequences of isolation and restlessness.

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Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman display polar opposite poetic qualities, most notably through their choice of language and structure, but also through their expression of desire and fulfillment. Dickinson demonstrates a sense of privacy and compression in terms of expressing one’s desires while Whitman demonstrates publicity and expansion. However, similarity arises as both speakers in the two poems display similar behavior as they are confronted by their sexual urges and choose to detach from them, only able to receive a taste of fulfillment through their imagination.

Works Cited

1. Allen, G. (2009). Walt Whitman's Song of Myself: A Sourcebook and Critical Edition. Routledge.
2. Bennett, P. (2011). Emily Dickinson: Selected Poems and Commentaries. Stanford University Press.
3. Franklin, R. W. (1999). The Poems of Emily Dickinson: Variorum Edition. Harvard University Press.
4. Gardner, J. F. (2010). Walt Whitman and the Civil War: America's Poet During the Lost Years of 1860-1862. McFarland.
5. Martin, W. (2011). The Cambridge Introduction to Emily Dickinson. Cambridge University Press.
6. Miller, J. R. (2014). Becoming Walt Whitman: The Making of a Poet. University of Chicago Press.
7. Pollak, V. L. (2004). The Erotic Whitman. University of California Press.
8. Sewall, R. B. (2013). The Life of Emily Dickinson. Harvard University Press.
9. Whitman, W. (2005). Leaves of Grass: The First (1855) Edition. Penguin Classics.
10. Woodress, J. (1982). Critical Essays on Emily Dickinson. G. K. Hall & Co.

Destined to Live

My book is a true story of a girl who survived the Holocaust.

Aurelia Gamzer had lived an idyllic life in Lvov, Poland. Her family was moderately wealthy, and Aurelia was a well behaved child who enjoyed sneaking sweets from her father’s candy shop; and playing with her many dolls. But, after the Hitler made a deal with the Soviet Union to invade Poland, the little girl’s world was turned upside down.

First, the Nazis took all of their possessions (gold, silver, jewelry) then the Nazis started to search houses for Jews so they could execute them. Aurelia and her family had to hide from the Gestapo to survive. After a few months of terror, every Jew had to wear an armband. Aurelia despised her armband, and begged her mother to take it off. All Jews in Lvov feared being taken away to the “work camps”. Aurelia and her family were forced to live in a ghetto. They had to share living quarters with another family, and each room was very, very small. Aurelia’s father had dug a hole under the floorboards so they could hide from the Gestapo.

The living conditions were terrible, Aurelia described there being a stench of chemicals, mixed with urine. Dogs and cats crowded the streets, and trash was thrown out on the street. Aurelia’s father would sneak in small rations of stale bread for his family. Her dad was considered a “useful Jew” so he had permissions to leave the ghetto to work in a factory. Aurelia’s family had come up with a plan to sneak her out of the ghetto so she could live with Christian family. As Aurelia hid under her father’s trench coat, she heard a Nazi yell at a “useful Jew” for taking too long to get his ID card out. The Nazi yelled “Jew” to his dog, and the dog killed the man.

After months of living with a Christian family in hiding, all Jews in Lvov were liberated by the Soviet Union after the Russians sided with the Ally forces. But life still wasn’t easy. All Lvov citizens were to move to Krakow unless they wanted to be Russian citizens. After years of waiting for their Visas, Aurelia’s family finally made their way to America, where Aurelia changed her name to Ruth, married Jack Gruener, continued her education, and gave many talks about life during WWII as a Jew.

Fact: During WWII Lvov was part of Poland, but after the Soviet Union took over Lvov, the name changed to Lviv.

Langston Hughes's poem ‘Harlem’ sometimes called A Dream Deferred, explores the consequences of allowing a dream to go unfulfilled. The title of the poem, 'Harlem', implies that the dream is one that has been kept from the people. Hughes titled this poem ‘Harlem’ after the New York neighborhood that became the center of the Harlem Renaissance, a major creative blast in melody, literature, and artwork that happened during the 1910s and 1920s. Many African African families saw Harlem as a sanctuary from the frequent discrimination they faced in other parts of the country. The dream is of social equality and civil right. The persona of the poem is a person who once had a lot of very important dreams and hoped to fulfill all of them at some point in life. The speaker of ‘Harlem' is an African American who is stressed with having his dream delayed and who senses a growing tension in a society that stops the dreams of a group of its citizens. However, the dreams were not fulfilled for some reason, and be asked what should happen to the dreams. ’What happens to a dream deferred?' (Langston Hughes). The writer uses abridged diction to show feelings. For example, the statement stink like rotten meat is used to show how disturbing and uncomfortable unfulfilled dreams make someone, drag them down, and make them feel useless. When focusing on the role of socio-political context, many African Americans were discomfited with the lack of opportunities open to them as the united state struggled to transform itself from a rural to an urban community. There was a significant uneven between the oath of United State democracy and its actuality. The racial prejudice angered them and the violence they often encountered. The limitation that the white-dominated had a place we fully understood by a large, better-educated urban population. As African Americans became more and more disillusioned about accomplishing the justice that wartime rhetoric had seemed to promise, many determined to follow their goals of equivalence and success more aggressively than ever before. Harlem Renaissance was helped by several organized political and economic movements in this post-war period. A new sense of empowerment in the African American residents is created by these motions.

During this time, African Americans saw the chance to invent a new identity for themselves within this creative output, two ideologies were dominant. The first represented by Du Bols, James Weldon Johnson of the NAACP, and others viewed the arts as an area where gifted and culturally privileged African Americans could lead their race's fight for equality. They wanted their cultural heritage and experience, proving the beauty of their race and its critical contribution to American culture as a whole to be drawn by artists. Artistic success, they believed that they will not only foster pride in the African American society but also prove to the whites that blacks were their equals. The Great Depression slowed the Harlem Renaissance mainly due to the loss of patronage from white supporters. Influential journals of the time, including the National Urban League's opportunity and the NAACP'S. The crisis also reduced their financial support of African American artists, and some artists moved on to other artistic opportunities outside of Harlem. This short poem is one of Hughes's most famous works, it is likely the most ordinary Langston Hughes poem taught in American schools. Hughes wrote ‘Harlem’ in 1965, and addresses one of his most ordinary themes-the limitations of the American Dream for African Americans. In the early 1950s, America was still racially isolated. African Americans have been saddled the legacy of slavery, which essentially rendered them, second-class citizens, in the eye of the law, particularly in the south. The culmination of the time of slavery led in a new generation of African Americans who were eager to attain cultural self-determination, economic, and political fairness, and active participation in civic duties. The change was bubbling up, however, Hughes wrote ‘Harlem’ only three years before the seminal supreme court decision in the 1954 case Brown vs Board of Education that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students top be unconstitutional. Therefore, Hughes was intimately watchful of the challenges he faced as a black man in America, and the tone of his work reflects his difficult experience: He can come across as sympathetic, enraged, hopeful, wistful, or quit.

The speaker talks about the destiny of a ‘dream deferred’. We are not sure who the speaker is in this poem but maybe it might be the poet, might be a professor, or might be a black person. There is a question that is powerful and there is a sense of quietness that follows. The image of a delayed dram was evoked by Hughes. He thinks about it drying up, festering, stinking, crusting over, or exploding. Each of these pictures, while not outright violent, has a little dark tone to them. These dismissed dreams were potent enough to make the reader smell, taste, and feel. According to Langston Hughes, a dismissed dream undergoes evolution, approaching a physical state of decay, but does not simply become invisible. The speaker does not refer to a specific dream, rather heshe suggest that African American cannot dream to aspire to great things because of the environment of oppression that surrounds them. Even if they do dare to dream their extensive plans will fester for so long that they end up rotting or even exploding. As critic Arthur P Davis writes, ‘when Hughes portrays the hopes, the aspirations, the frustrations and the deep-seated discontent of the New York ghetto, he is expressing the feelings of Negroes in black ghettos throughout American’(Langston Hughes). Hughes uses different figurative language to create vivid imagery in the poem to suggest just what might happen as a result of being denied that dream. A simile is one of type of figurative language used in the poem. A simile uses the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ to compare two things, and a line of similes is used in the poem to compare a dream deferred to rotting, aging or burdensome items. A dream deferred is compared to a raisin, a sore, rotten meat, a syrupy sweet, and a heavy load. The actions linked to these items suggest what might happen to the dream, such as rotting and dying or weighing down the conscience of the people. The poet uses a metaphor that compares two things without using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’. The poem ends with a single metaphor with the line ‘Or does it explode?’ The text is also telling this metaphor even more. The metaphor compares a dream deferred to a bomb. The momentum for the dream may continue to build and finally explode because there is nowhere to go. Alternately, the dreamer's anger may cause the dream to explode into action. There are many other examples of figurative language that are found throughout the poem helping to reinforce the vivid imagery. The ongoing use of the expression ‘Does it’ is an example of anaphora, which is the repetition of a word or phrase at the start of a series of sentences, phrases, or clauses. Used here, anaphora helps to underscore the question and to make a sense of urgency around it. Alliteration, or the repetition of consonant sounds, is found in the ‘sound in’ what happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up' The use of alliteration helps create rhythm, and it emphasizes the words, drawing attention to ideas in them. The final line uses hyperbole, or deliberate exaggeration, to underscore the severity of the potential consequences of denying the dream of social equality.

To sum up, everything that has been stated so far, the Harlem Renaissance was very important because it changed the way African Americans were described. The poet talks about the fate of the black American dream that is fading away, especially the black American while white is privileged. He wanted to know if exploded violently or dried up. However, Hughes appears to the perspective of a hopeless person living in Harlem. He also emphasizes how the people of Harlem are being mistreated and taken as second citizens. More he also saw that the lives and dreams of many black Americans are destroyed. The Harlem Renaissance created a new culture that white Americans wanted to see was happening in Harlem and wondering what this new culture was nad because of migration of the south to the north it made the Harlem Renaissance even strong.

Reference

1. Hull, G.T. and Hull, A,G., 187. Color, sex & Poetry:three women writers of Harlem Renaissance. Indiana University Press.
2. Myers, W.D., Davis, O and Dee, R., 1997. Harlem:A poem. Scholastic Press.
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