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Sibling Rivalry: cause and effect essay

Introduction: Many people have an idea of what the “perfect” family is. Maybe this ideal includes parents that love their children unconditionally or children who enjoy and tolerate each other. In all reality, the flawless family does not really exist at all. Most families at least have some problems that arise on occasion or maybe they are just entirely dysfunctional. A common problem that arises in households is sibling rivalry, which is the topic of this essay. Background: Sibling rivalry is frequently known as a jealousy or a competition between brothers and/or sisters. This problem has been around for years and years, as seen mentioned in the Bible between Cain and Abel. Cain and Abel were biblical figures who were brothers. They each had to bring a sacrifice to God. When Abel’s sacrifice was bigger and better than his brother’s, Cain became enraged and killed Abel out of jealousy. In extreme cases, sibling rivalry can even be fatal. Thesis statement: A parent’s attitude of carelessness is the cause of sibling rivalry. Lack of attention, structure and acceptance due to the carelessness of parents will cause sibling conflict.

Topic sentence: Parents’ have an extremely vital and significant role in a child’s life. From birth, a child needs affection and attention from their mother to develop correctly. Since parents are so important “mothers and fathers both provide essential… influences on children’s emotion regulation abilities” (Miller, “Sibling…”). Evidence & citing: The absence of attention from a parent can be detrimental to children, especially if one sibling is getting recognition and another is not. A parent who is careless about certain offspring and is too focused on themselves or another child, is the source of a budding rivalry between siblings. Commentary: Lack of attention will cause a child to become jealous of their siblings who are receiving attention maybe because of their good grades or athleticism. This can also happen if a child feels threatened by a new baby in the family that is getting all of the attention. The child may feel abandoned or uncared for and it is hard losing their position of center of attention. Jealousy will seed animosity towards a sibling leading to a competition between the attention getter and the forgotten child. No kid wants to be treated unfairly. A child may experience jealousy because of the “threat of losing a valued relationship to a rival” (Miller, “Sibling…”). This careless lack of attention can also cause children to act out just to gain some sort of notice. Children can easily gain this negative attention through fighting with their siblings just to arouse their parents. Many aspects can cause lack of attention but, “stress in the parents’ lives can decrease the amount of time and attention parents can give the children and increase sibling rivalry”.

Topic sentence: A parent who does not care about creating a structure for the home, will lead to the high chances of their children fighting. This is common when children “don’t have rules to guide their behavior, so they tend…to fight more”. Evidence & citing: Children can often become anxious in a home with no structure. Thus, they do not know what to expect or how to act around their family. Therefore, the kids will continuously try to test the waters and experiment with boundaries through sibling fights. This will help the child to know what is exactly wanted from them. Stress and anxiousness in a child’s life can “shorten their fuses, and decrease their ability to tolerate frustration, leading to more conflict”. Commentary: It is vital that parents care enough to create a structure in the home because it “offers children a sense of security and control in a world full of uncertainty – and helps create healthy habits that last into adulthood” (Buskirk, Wendy). Children need clear rules to follow, parents who do not care to create them are causing the conflict between their children. “Having set routines can also reinforce better behavior” so that children can learn to get along with their siblings instead of competing with them. In many homes, parents neglect their offspring and there is absolutely no structure in the house. This will lead to many problems, but a main trouble is sibling rivalry. Children who are neglected and are bored will also become frustrated. Parents failing to have regular family time together, like sitting down and having dinner, can increase the possibility of the children getting involved in conflict with each other. Having set routines can help the kids be “able to deal with the unknown” and become less prone to starting fights. Doing this will help to reduce anxiety and will make the children more cooperative and less resistant.

Topic sentence: Lack of acceptance from parents can be very hard on siblings and children. One of the most basic human needs is to belong. This will affect them in many aspects of life, even as they grow older into adult hood. Evidence & citing: Absence of approval can cause deep rooted problems within children and teens. Their mental images of themselves will be distorted if they do not get the embrace they need, causing other psychological issues as well. Commentary: Many children feel as though they have to fit into a mold of their other or older siblings. They think they have to be and live up to the things that their siblings did because parents will have the same expectations of them. These children may find themselves “competing to define who they are as an individual”. Children will act out through fighting with their brothers and sisters, just to show they are separate from their siblings. They want to be accepted for their own talents and if they see their parent’s more involved in their siblings interests they will get jealous and act out. It has been shown that “how parents treat their children and react to conflicts, can make a big difference in how well siblings get along”.

Topic sentence: Some people believe sibling rivalry is not caused by parents’ careless attitudes at all. It is believed that sibling rivalry can start outside of the home. Evidence & citing: Sibling rivalry could be caused from approval of peers or teachers. Having an older sibling that is very successful in sports, school or just social life can be daunting to a younger sibling. Younger siblings feel the need to live up to their brother’s and sister’s accomplishments. Commentary: For example, a math teacher may expect you to do extremely well in their class because your older sister always got an A, but math is not your strong subject at all. This can cause conflict between siblings because you are consistently feeling compared to your siblings from your peers and other mentors. The sibling will feel jealous of the appreciation that their other sibling has gotten or still gets. There will be frustration because they know they are a different person and have a different mind compared to their brothers and/or sisters. I do not think this argument reigns true because of how significant parent’s roles are in a child’s life. I believe parents are the biggest cause of sibling rivalry.

Conclusion paragraph: In conclusion, sibling rivalry will continue to be a problem within families until the end of time. This issue is seen every day in common families and in the most flawed families as well. Children that have to deal with competition and jealousy will deal with immense stress and anxiety. Sibling rivalry is overall caused by careless parents’ attitudes. Lack of attention, structure and acceptance due to the carelessness of parents will cause conflict between siblings and children can be forever affected by this. I think it is important for parents to recognize their position and importance that they have on their children’s lives and well beings. They should strive to eliminate their negative actions and become more aware of their children’s different talents and interests. They should set their children up to be successful and individual people, instead of tearing them down with comparison and negativity.

Works Cited

• Buskirk, Wendy Von. “Family Structure: Its Importance and How to Create It.” Detroit and Ann Arbor Metro Parent, Detroit and Ann Arbor Metro Parent, 2 Oct. 2017, www.metroparent.com/daily/parenting/parenting-issues-tips/family-structure-its-importance-and-how-to-create-it/.
• “Coping with Sibling Rivalry.” The Center for Parenting Education, centerforparentingeducation.org/library-of-articles/sibling-rivalry/coping-sibling-rivalry/.
• Miller, Alison L., et al. “Sibling Jealousy in a Triadic Context with Mothers and Fathers.” Social Development, vol. 9, no. 4, Nov. 2000, pp. 433–457. EBSCOhost, login.libproxy.siue.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=4325779&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
• “Sibling Rivalry - What Causes Rivalry between Siblings.” Somatoform Disorders - Types, Symptoms, Causes and Treatment - GoMentor, www.gomentor.com/articles/Sibling-Rivalry.

Introduction

Should follow an “upside down” triangle format, meaning, the writer should start off broad and introduce the text and author or topic being discussed, and then get more specific to the thesis statement.

Background

Provides a foundational overview, outlining the historical context and introducing keyinformation that will be further explored in the essay, setting the stage for the argument to follow.

Thesis statement

Cornerstone of the essay, presenting the central argument that will be elaborated upon and supported with evidence and analysis throughout the rest of the paper.

Topic sentence

The topic sentence serves as the main point or focus of a paragraph in an essay, summarizing the key idea that will be discussed in that paragraph.

Evidence & citing

The body of each paragraph builds an argument in support of the topic sentence, citing information from sources as evidence.

Commentary

After each piece of evidence is provided, the author should explain HOW and WHY the evidence supports the claim.

Conclusion paragraph

Should follow a right side up triangle format, meaning, specifics should be mentioned first such as restating the thesis, and then get more broad aboutthe topic at hand. Lastly, leave the reader with something to think about and ponder once they are done reading.

Kidney Disease is a disease affecting the kidneys and its functions. There are many different forms of kidney disease and various outcomes. In order to recognize kidney disease, there are many symptoms that someone would be able to recognize. There are 3 main causes of kidney disease that can be fatal to a person’s body. Kidney Disease effects many aspects of life and can change someone’s life for the worse.

The Kidneys are two organs that are located on the left and right of the spine in the middle of the back. They are in a shape of a bean and about the size of a human fist. The main function of the kidneys is to remove waste and excess fluid from the body. They also regulate the body’s salt, potassium, and acid content. The kidneys produce hormones and vitamins that regulate blood pressure and help the metabolism. Without the kidneys, the body would not be able to function successfully.

When diagnosed with kidney disease there are many symptoms that come with it. High blood pressure is most common symptom. Most other symptoms deal with urination and swelling of the body. Symptoms coming from urination include burning or difficulty during urination and increase in frequency of urination. Also, the passage of blood in urine is not uncommon. Puffiness around the eyes, swelling of the feet and hands, and pain in the small of the back is also to be expected when diagnosed.

There are many kinds of kidney diseases. The 3 main types of disorders are congenital disorder, chronic disorder, and acute disorder. Congenital disorders are either genetic or developed at a very early age. Chronic disorders develop over many years and are long-lasting. Acute disorders occur very suddenly and are very dangerous. An example of how to develop acute kidney disease is from a blockage of the kidney drainage system.

Causes of kidney disease can be developed after a long period of time or something that occurs suddenly. All causes are dangerous and lead to death either from the kidneys are the disease itself. Diabetes and High Blood Pressure are the 2 main causes of kidney disease. Immune system conditions such as Lupus and HIV/AIDS are contributing factors of this disease. When a person is diagnosed with Hepatitis B and C, kidney disease is a very likely possibility.

The only cause of kidney disease that is under human control is the consumption of alcohol. This can be very dangerous to every part of a human body but the kidneys are greatly affected. Alcohol prevents the kidneys from maintaining a proper balance of body fluids and minerals. It also damages the kidney cells, changing the structure and function of the kidneys. Lastly, drinking alcohol increases the chance of developing high blood pressure, which is the 2nd leading cause of kidney disease.

Disorders that affect the kidneys can be diagnosed by a number of methods. Kidney imaging such as MRIs and X-Rays are the most common method. Blood tests, urinalysis, and renal kidney are a few of the others. Renal kidney is a biopsy done on the kidney where samples of the kidney are taken and tested. All of these tests are used to determine the type and degree of the kidney disease.

Through my research, I found out a lot about kidney disease. The thing that most impacted me was how alcohol was the only cause of kidney disease that humans have the control over. I also learned a lot about how the kidney actually works and how much the body depends on the kidneys to survive.

The topic of same-sex marriage is now among the biggest debating topics in our societies today. Some big countries and religions accepted this into their communities now as we speak. Those who involve into this activity always fight for their rights to make it a legal act. My stand here in writing this short essay is, I’m fully not in support with the thing same-sex marriage. Below are the three reasons why I’m not supporting the legalization of it.

First, it’s wrong according to our Christianity values. That the one creator who is Alpha and Omega established rules to govern marriage long before our governments began to impose laws on it. In the first book of our holy bible, it tells us; “A man will leave his father and mother and must stick to his wife they become one flesh”. According to VINES EXPOSITORY OF BIBLIAL WORDS; the Hebrew word ‘wife’, Means, “One who is a female human being “. Jesus later confirmed that those yoked together in marriage should be “male and female”. 

Second, it’s against our native tribe's cultural beliefs. Our ancestors never thought of the idea of male on male and female on female. It’s weird in their mindsets that it will be possible if humans involve in such activity. So if anyone tries to talk about that idea to them, they will suddenly slit his or her throat. That law is very deadly in our culture, someone will risk his family’s status if they like doing same-sex practice. The law for that is getting slacker nowadays due to civilization but still, no one will welcome you in their home or in any other social events if you are Gay or lesbian.

Finally, it’s wrong from the nature of Human beings. All animals on earth have two Genders only, that’s what I believe from the heart. We, humans, are made very unique from other animals; we have five senses that are well created by God because we are meant to be stewards of this Planet Earth. Our common sense can tell each one, what is right and wrong. If someone thinks that same-sex marriage is ok for humans, then I said maybe he or she lost her common sense somewhere. Male reproductive system only has one partner which is the Female reproductive system in order to reproduce offspring. I know that science disapproves my point but I said it against human nature.

To conclude, I just want say that many people have their own perspective on this matter. But I for one, I have my strong belief in Christianity, my culture and nature itself. People will argue my views, but I will never accept same-sex marriage until my last day on earth.

REFERENCES

1. Genesis 2:24
2. Matthew 19:4
3. VINES EXPOSITORY OF BIBLIAL WORDS

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Increased Demand
3. The Rise of Lenders
4. More Fun, More Funds
5. Possible Objections
6. Conclusion

Introduction

College tuition has been increasing at a rate surpassing what people believe to be sustainable. That has led to overwhelming student debt in America, reaching so high that some call it a ‘Student Loan Crisis’. Many people blame greed on the part of colleges and student loan providers for the high prices. However, it also has a lot to do with the simple laws of supply and demand as they relate to the supply of and demand for a college education, increased money to pay for school, and competition for students between colleges.

One of the largest problems American students are facing today is the ever-increasing cost of attending college. The issue of student loans and repayment of those loans is a very polarizing political issue in the United States today, as the total student loan debt pushes ever higher, reaching $1.56 trillion as of February 2019. There are over 44.7 million borrowers today, who each owe amounts ranging from $1 to well over $200,000.

People push for various solutions, ranging from keeping things the way they are to having college tuition completely covered by the government. With tuition increasing year after year, often at a pace surpassing inflation or the consumer price index, many people are left wondering how to possibly pay for college, needing to turn either to ever larger, unescapable student loans, or being unable to attend college. Neither of those options is preferable, with large debt delaying the time that people can afford to make large purchases, such as homes, or invest and save money for retirement, and not having a college degree leading to many people never being able to capitalize on how much they would have been able to make in their lifetimes.

The question arises, then, what made college so expensive? With so many programs around today to help people afford college, such as federal grants or work-study, scholarships, state need based grants, and more, why are people increasingly unable to afford college? This isn’t a one cause issue, as there are many things that have helped lead to the snowball of debt people have to put themselves into to afford college. Some may say that it’s the fault of colleges for being greedy, even if they aren’t a for profit college.

Others say that it’s the fault of borrowers for taking out more loans than they could handle and perhaps not working enough during college to avoid that mistake. Instead of pointing fingers, it’s better to find the degrees of truth within people’s claims. College tuition has increased dramatically due to increased demand, the rise in lenders, and college competition for prospective students.

Increased Demand

Two basic concepts of microeconomics are that of the laws of supply and demand. Simply put, the law of supply states that as price goes up, suppliers will offer more of a product. That is a positive correlation. On the other hand, the law of demand states that as price goes up, consumers will consume less of a product, which is a negative correlation. Typically, a rise in both demand and supply will increase the quantity of a good supplied, while the price remains somewhat stable, and at times indeterminate. There isn’t an unending supply of spots however, so more room must be made, or more colleges built. This requires more highly educated professors, a small group of people who can demand higher wages.

William Baumol and William Bowen, in their 1966 book Performance Arts: An Economic Dilemma, wrote about a process known as “cost disease”. The basic premise is that service prices rise rapidly because they are following the trend of service industry costs rising faster than the cost of producing most goods. College professors, being unable to produce at a higher capacity, cause cost to go up over time. As there is a higher demand for college professors, they are able to charge more for their services. In addition, because of their limited production capacity, colleges must hire more teaching assistants to assist professors. While a cheaper option than hiring more professors on an individual basis, cumulatively they work to drive up the cost paid in salaries to a college’s workers.

Students want a quality education, and so to attract high quality professors, colleges often have to have high salaries offered for those professors. In Tuition Rising, Ronald G. Ehrenberg writes about how “central administrators want their [professors] to be paid generously” in order to both “attract and retain high quality faculty”. However, “in the absence of a willingness to cut the number of faculty and staff at an institution, there is an inevitable tradeoff between the administrators’ efforts to moderate the rate of tuition increases... and to provide generous salary increases for the faculty”. The increase in demand leads to a necessity of more professors, which can saturate the market, so to appease staff, salaries are bumped up, which in turn bumps up tuition.

A college education wasn’t always within reach for many people. In The Student Loan Mess, Joel Best and Eric Best explain how schooling, even primary and secondary education, was seen as “a private, individualistic affair; if you wanted your child taught, you paid... all the way through college”.

However, a more knowledgeable population is more beneficial for society. “More education reduces all sorts of social problems: educated people live longer, are healthier, have more stable families, are less likely to get into trouble with the law... more education benefits individuals at the same time that it benefits the community”. And so, as time passed, state and federal governments began building public schools, and required schooling up to a certain point, at first only to eighth grade, and by today until the age of sixteen or seventeen in most states.

Many people were being educated to a certain level that got higher as time progressed, but college remained elusive to those not rich enough to afford it or the private tutors needed to attain the grades for entry. That was set to change however, and the event that contributed the most to the rise in college enrollment was the passage of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, more commonly known at the GI Bill, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Benefits for veterans wasn’t a new idea.

In The GI Bill, Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin write about what veteran’s received in the past. “Veteran’s benefits laws stretched back at least as far as the measure adopted by the settlers of Plymouth... to maintain for life any soldier maimed in the colony’s service. Virtually every military conflict... has produced at least one veteran’s benefits law”. The difference is that those benefits almost always took the form of pensions. They were also only paid out to soldiers who were disabled during their service, or to the families of soldiers who died.

The GI Bill allowed all veterans access to benefits once they left service, from healthcare to affordable housing to access to a college education through subsidies. 120 Years of American Education, a study conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics, shows the monumental leap in bachelor’s degrees conferred by higher education institutions. There is a small rise in the 1920s, as “young people complete high school and consequently become eligible for college admission”, but the true rise comes right as the GI Bill is passed.

Between the 1945-46 and 1947-48 school years, the number of bachelor’s degrees handed out doubled, from 136,174 to 271,186, and it continued to rise quickly. Occasionally, it would slow during wars, but it would always come back, and stronger than it had left. America now had more access to college than ever before, and the college fever wasn’t going to die down any time soon.

The Rise of Lenders

Many students resort to taking out loans to pay for their schooling, as the cost is often too high to pay out of pocket. Loan borrowers have undoubtedly heard of Sallie Mae, one of the largest student loan providers in the country. It was started as a government-sponsored enterprise back in 1972. Their purpose was to provide students with loans since “students rarely have an established credit record or sizeable assets”, making them unattractive to commercial lenders. A market had opened, with millions of people looking for money, and Sallie Mae swooped in to fill that gap.

Early on, Sallie Mae had access to low interest rates from the Federal Financing Bank until 1984, and when that dried up, they replaced that advantage with the Treasury Department allowing Sallie Mae access to variable interest rates for terms up to 15 years. These advantages, among others, helped Sallie Mae’s capital to rise rapidly, from $300 million in assets in 1975 to $39 billion by 1990, a monumental rise of 13,000%, while the S&P 500 and United States GDP rose only approximately 470% and 341% over that same period respectively. Eventually, Sallie Mae transitioned over to a private entity, and took along with it the massive amount of cash and name recognition that it had acquired over the years.

A problem that lenders faced early on was the risk of borrowers declaring bankruptcy to clear the debt they had accrued. In Student Loans in Bankruptcy, Duke Chen writes “the reason most often cited for making student loans non-dischargeable is to prevent fraud. The legislative history of the 1978 Bankruptcy Reform Act contains warnings that making student loan dischargeable would be ‘almost specifically designed to encourage fraud.’” To ease lenders’ fears of non-repayment, “In 1976, Congress amended the Higher Education Act of 1965 by forbidding borrowers to discharge students loans through bankruptcy during the first five years of their repayment periods; in 1990, the ban was extended to seven years”.

However, as credit card debt rose, bankruptcies continued, and so Congress passed the Higher Education Amendments of 1998, which “made [governmental] student loan debt non-dischargeable through bankruptcy unless the debtor could clear the relatively high bar of demonstrating undue hardship”. Chen writes that “in 2005, Congress passed the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act (BAPCPA) which amended the Higher Education Act of 1965 to make private educational loans non-dischargeable, when in the past it had only applied to governmental loans.” With the passage of that amendment, borrowers now no longer had their loans treated as unsecured loans, but as secured obligation, such as alimony, child support, and criminal fines.

More Fun, More Funds

As more and more people are vying to go to college and have access to the money to go to those colleges, colleges are now having to compete to get those prospective students. While there is still an admissions process, and not every student can get into the college that they want, students have more options now. As a result, colleges must now do whatever they can to look more attractive.

In American Higher Education in Crisis, Goldie Blumenstyk briefly discusses the beginning of the U.S. News and World Report’s college ranking publication, starting in 1985. “As critics of U.S. News have noted, its ranking are heavily driven by factors that are tied directly to how much colleges spend. For example, by spending more on merit aid for top students, colleges can improve the academic profile of their student body, which helps them in the rankings”. There are other places to find rankings about colleges, such as Niche, but U.S. News is seen as “the most influential [ranking] of America’s colleges”.

In his book Breaking Point, Connell says that colleges suffer from an “amenities war”. Even throughout the recession, college spending on building infrastructure has increased dramatically. “When averaged together, the cost of college infrastructure projects has increased... an average annual increase of 25 percent... since 1997”. Those are increases on spending for buildings like libraries, science buildings, and residence halls. And while these buildings may be necessary, as they are constructed and renovated throughout the years, it adds on tremendous cost to each student’s tuition.

Those costs aren’t in vain however, as prospective students want to know about a college’s educational standing compared to its peers, as well as the cost of attendance. This leads to the rise in infrastructure spending along with the increased competition between colleges. Beyond spending on academics, colleges have also ramped up spending on more ‘luxury’ items that are unrelated to the quality of the education they offer.

As stated in Breaking Point, these include such items as “student activities, cultural events, intramural athletics... intercollegiate athletics... and college stores”. While these may not seem like items with big ticket prices at first glance, they often require much larger and more expensive buildings to accommodate them, such as various sports facilities for intramural athletics and intercollegiate athletics. These buildings help pile on to the already higher cost of infrastructure that colleges seemingly need to have in order to compete with others in their peer group.

Students value a quality education, but that also coincides with a value placed in the extra things that a campus has to offer. In a study conducted by the Delta Cost Project, the authors attempted to determine how students value “academics, costs, and social amenities” in a college setting. They found that students tend to “value institution’s spending on consumption attributes... but do not value spending on instruction”. This explains why although colleges may be increasing spending on academic factors, they are also increasing spending on non-academic factors.

As many colleges now offer the same degrees, one factor that can set a college apart from the rest is the size and scope of their facilities. However, many of the facilities that colleges spend money on are unrelated to academics. While some might say that having buildings like gyms are a good thing for the students, others are calling the phenomenon a “‘country-clubization’ of the American university” as colleges spend tens of millions of dollars on facilities completely unnecessary to academic purposes, such as a “$10 million renovation project to include an ‘Olympic-sized swimming pool, co-ed sauna, juice bar, golf simulator, and rock-climbing wall’ at the University of Pennsylvania, or a “new $130 million ‘super dorm’” at George Washington University (Connell, 2016, p.33). While those extra things are undoubtedly a nice feature to have, they don’t contribute to how well students do academically, and are in place solely to attract prospective students to those colleges.

Possible Objections

One objection some may have to bringing up collegiate athletics as unnecessary spending for a university is that those sports games can create a positive revenue stream for the colleges. The idea is that broadcasting deals, team merchandise sales, and other revenue streams typical of professional sports teams would help colleges not only recoup the cost of the initial investment for the facility, but also for continuing costs.

However, this is rarely the case. “Data that is regularly compiled by USA Today and Indiana University’s National Sports Journalism Center show that of the 228 public universities that operate Division I programs, only twenty-three took in more from tickets, licensing, broadcast deals, and donations than they spent on athletics in 2012. And even among those that generated surpluses, sixteen still received subsidies from other university funds.

Data from USA Today and federal sources... showed that athletics spending per athlete grew faster than academic spending per student from 2005 to 2011. So, not only do sports programs often create an outflow of cash, they also take money away from the education part of colleges. That’s not to say that colleges should do away with sports programs, because many students enjoy participating in them. It is simply important to understand the truth behind collegiate athletics, as many people may think that they are more profitable than they truly are.

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Conclusion

College tuition has been driven up by the same market forces as other products in competitive markets. Its price hikes are helped along due to it being a good that many people view as a type of necessity for success in life, and therefore something that must be acquired, somewhat regardless of the financial cost. This allows colleges to justify prices because of high demand, but the rise isn’t only caused by colleges. College being so accessible to the middle and even working class is a rather new reality not seen before the 20th century. The desire for students to have facilities that contribute to a more enjoyable college experience than is strictly necessary for a good education also leads to higher prices.

Religion. Ferdinand II attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domain.

The protestant nobles of Austria and Bohemia rose up in rebellion. Ferdinand II won after five years of struggling. King Christian of Denmark saw an opportunity to gain territory to make up what was lost to Sweden. His defeat in 1692 finished Denmark as a European power, but Sweden invaded Poland and won many princes to his anti-Roman Catholic, anti-imperial cause. The conflict fueled the ambitions of various powers. The rise of Protestantism spreads and knocks Europe significantly. They were under constant civil war between the German states who embraced Protestantism and the others who were loyal the Roman Catholic Church. Most of Europe’s power underwent problems as a result of the protestant reformation.

The execution of Jan Hus (1415).

Jan Hus was born in 1357 and was ordained to priesthood in 1401. Spent most of his career teaching. Hus copied the works of john Wycliffe’s work for his own use. He stressed the role of the bible in Church, and consequently he lifted biblical preaching to an important status in church services. Many of the clergy felt that their lifestyles were being questioned. But his was popular with the masses. He was thrown out of Church; they told Hus to stop preaching and asked the church to burn the Wycliffe’s books. Hus refused to comply, and the church condemned him. Hus continued to preach about indulgences of the pope. Eventually the pope excommunicated Hus and placed Prague under an interdict. Huis left Prague, but continued to preach. Hus only ran into trouble with his teachings. 1415 he was summoned to the Council of Constance., to defend his teachings. He was promised safe conduct by Emperor Sigismund. He was arrested soon after he arrived. The council condemned the teachings of Wycliffe. Hud was condemned for teaching his beliefs. Formally condemned, he was handed over to the secular authorities to be burned at the stake, July 16th, 1415. Hua had been popular with many people, and his heroic death only increased his prestige. His followers came out in rebellion against the Catholic Church, thus starting a conflict that would soon lead to the Thirty Years war.

Rudolph II and the letter of majesty.

In 1611, Rudolph tried to assert his authority over bohemia. The bohemian Estates called to Matthias to help them with Rudolph’s attempted authority. Rudolph’s attempt came out to nothing and failed. In return for his support Matthias was crowned king of Bohemia from 1611 to 1616. In 1612 Rudolph died and Mathias became Holy Roman Emperor. He remained childless, but nobody knew who would rule after he died. The Bohemian Nobles elected Ferdinand of Styria to become king in June 1617. He was a strict catholic and would not tolerate non-Catholics in Bohemia. The Protestants feared his appointment as they wanted the elector of Saxony or Palatine. Ferdinand was offered the title on condition that he upheld the letter of majesty. Ferdinand needed ten deputies to help him run Bohemia. Seven were catholic and only three were protestant. In March 1619, Matthias died and Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor and king of Bohemia. Ferdinand made it his crusade to re-Catholicism the empire. Other Holy Roman Empires feared this approach, believed that if they stood alone they be easily picked off. The revolt in Bohemia had been disastrous for the Bohemians but it had also left an important area in the hand of the Catholics.

Protestant church building.

The Protestants were unhappy with Ferdinand II. They enjoyed the freedom under his rule, but the emperor was cracking down on Catholicism. Ferdinand was a devout catholic and closed down one of the protestant churches and destroyed another. He was determined to make the land thoroughly catholic. The violence began on May 23rd 1618, with the defenestration of Prague. Bohemian rebels stormed the royal palace and threw Ferdinand's governors out the window. The presidents elected Frederick V as their new king. Ferdinand was Hapsburg, part of the destiny had held the throughout Europe.

Literature written in our times is the most effective when they are able to give readers a message that can directly correspond to the real world they are living in today. Through contemporary literature, readers can be made aware of conditions in society the time it was written. This is more thought-provoking and leaves a lasting impact than simply if it was written for informative or entertainment purposes. Contemporary literature is at its best when readers can identify these problems in society, as the author can talk to the readers and convey a strong message by making them alert, or even being able to provide a solution to these social problems. This is clearly shown in the novel, “The Handmaid’s Tale”, written by Margaret Atwood. Written in 1985, this piece of contemporary literature is a dystopian novel full of cautions for the development of society and our environment. Through the development of ideas and settings, we realise nothing in the novel is original, but in fact, have already taken place in our real world. This is due to the fact that history repeats itself and shows us that the same, or even worse issues may arise or already be present in our modern society as in the past.

The extreme power and control of the government in “The Handmaid’s Tale” stimulates readers to see and imagine how such a government could arise. The Republic of Gilead is a totalitarian theocratic regime set in the near future, where the men hold all the power and authority. The regime strictly limits the amount of freedom and individuality available to its citizens through removing, manipulating, and censoring any unwanted information and also language itself, in order to suit the leaders’ wants and beliefs. As Michel Foucault said, “knowledge is power and power has control over knowledge”. All people in society are victims of this oppressive government, and are always under constant surveillance and fear of being killed or sent outside to the “colonies”. “The Wall” is a key method the government uses to gain power through establishing fear amongst its people. Citizens who have rebelled or broken and gone against the rules are publicly hanged on a brick wall for all to see with only their faces covered with a paper bag, making them unrecognisable. Offred says, “We’re supposed to look; this is what they are there for”. The regime uses The Wall as a warning and threat, and even though Offred and others know this purpose, they do not do anything against it due to fear. This is a reminder of the difference between being ignorant and ignoring, and how they let fear overcome their ability to do what is right. “We lived, as usual by ignoring. Ignoring isn’t the same as ignorance, you have to work at it”. Through Offred’s narrative, Atwood successfully conveys the idea that it is so easy to let power take control. She shows us that it is only until when people take notice and protest or take action, that change is able to take place. Complacency is dangerous, and as people, it is our duty and responsibility to form the society we are living in. If we continue to look past and ignore the problems and faults of our society today, we may end up with a society just as bad as Gilead. This dystopian, future time setting in the novel alerts us to the vulnerability and potential power of our society and community, and makes us become more aware of our own country’s political state and development.

A prominent social problem displayed throughout the text is the idea of feminism and gender equality. This can be seen through the setting of the Commander’s house and the Rachel and Leah Centre (Red Centre). Women are assigned jobs purely based on their sexuality, and we see them, through Offred, struggle to survive in their male-dominated world. In the society where infertility rates are high, the goal of every woman is to be able to reproduce, or perform domestic roles within the household. She says they are, “two-legged wombs, that’s all; sacred vessels, ambulatory chalices”, highlighting the fact that they are not considered human and instead, objects for reproduction. The setting includes the public sphere and the private sphere of society. The public sphere is where citizens have the chance to voice and express their opinions and needs to the regime. In Gilead, it is limited only to the men, who are able to be employed and work. All women including Offred are part of the private sphere; where they are hidden from society, only allowed into the public sphere for domestic reasons. Through this, Atwood portrays America during the 1980s, where Reaganism was most influential at the time. Reaganism, termed based on American President Ronald Reagan, brought back “traditional” family values, and many changes took place which Atwood viewed with disquiet and disapproval. At the Red Centre, an institution for training girls to become handmaids, the young women are taught to be silent, that “modesty is invisibility”, and are brainwashed by the Aunts. Aunt Lydia tells them, “There is more than one kind of freedom. Freedom to and freedom from...Now you are being given freedom from. Don’t underrate it.” These references act as a reminder for us to not take for granted the respect and freedom women before us fought so hard to attain. While there has been a noticeable movement towards gender equality since the 80s, especially in contemporary Western society, “The Handmaid’s Tale” warns us that inequality is still present in the world today, and is a problem we are continuously solving. This can be seen in the recent Women’s Marches throughout America after President Donald Trump’s inauguration. Women dressed as handmaids from the novel appeared at these demonstrations and forced people, including myself, to contrast the events and ideals of America under the presidency of Trump, to Gilead and view the similarities between the two worlds in the matter of this societal issue.

Another social problem the contemporary literature alerts readers to is the environment. The environment outside of Gilead is one that is soaked with chemicals and pollution, and it is this environment that caused infertility rates to rise significantly. Offred sees glimpses of the state of the environment through the television; “Now we can see a city, again from the air. This used to be Detroit”, “...a clump of trees explodes”, and “From the skyline columns of smoke ascend”. Through these descriptions, we become aware that the state of the environment is not clean, but is bleak and post-apocalyptic, with wars occurring and people dying not long after being exposed to the toxic atmosphere. It furthermore adds to the dystopian setting of the novel. The environment is an important part of society, as it provides resources and space for our survival and ways of living as a community, such as for food production, water, and air for breathing. This environment, like the other social issues, is not taken out of context, but is also a reference to events that happened during the time the novel was written. Global issues such as oil spills, climate change, nuclear testing, air pollution, and the overuse of pesticides led to growing concerns about the environment and the high risk it was at. As a member of the Canadian Green Party, Atwood portrays her concern through the novel by showing us the consequences and damage that will occur if irresponsible actions towards the environment continue through setting it in an extremely destructive environment. It is mentioned in the historical notes, that the “incidents of sabotage characterized the period”, and “their effects were noticeable”. This reminds us to be conscious of our actions and take care of the environment as damage to the environment does not only affect the environment itself, but also us humans, who depend on it.

The best form of contemporary literature is one that raises awareness of the problems we face as a society. “The Handmaid’s Tale” written by Margaret Atwood is a cruel, but realistic depiction of the future of our world, and emphasises its potential to become a place like Gilead if social issues are not properly addressed. Atwood says, “There’s not a single detail in the book that does not have a corresponding reality, either in contemporary conditions or historical fact”, and as readers, we are clearly shown the contrast and influences of our real world through the novel and settings. Because of this, the novel leaves a lasting impact, and is one we will not forget.

The letters ‘CE’ refers to the French abbreviation "Conformité Européene" and it may appear on many products that are traded on the extended Single Market in the European Economic Area (EEA). This marking is referred as the CE Marking. The EEA composed of the EU countries along with Iceland Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.

CE Marking presence on a product referred as the declaration of the manufacturer that the product meets the standards and legal requirements to be marketed on the EEA. This condition also applies to the products from the other countries which are to be sold in the EEA Market. The CE Mark implies that the products sold in the single Market of EEA have complied to meet all safety, health and environmental protection requirements. Any products bought within the EEA possess the CE mark on them. CE marking in a way promotes fair competition on the market as all companies are accountable to the same rules. The manufacturer or the manufacturer himself is responsible for verifying compliance with the directives and affixing the CE marking.

“The main benefits that the CE marking brings to the businesses and consumers within the EEA are:

• Businesses know that products bearing the CE marking can be traded in the EEA without restrictions.
• Consumers enjoy the same level of health, safety, and environmental protection throughout the EEA”.

To affix the product with the CE Mark the Manufacturers follows the set of documents from the European Union known as Product Directives.

Product Directives are the documents that contain requirements and regulation the product should comply with. Not all products should be affixed with the CE marking. It is compulsory only for the products that need to be marketed within EEA and covered by the Product Directives. The product directives are classified based on the industrial sector the product being used. It is forbidden to affix CE marking to the products that does not fall under any product directives. Depending on the nature of the product the product falls under one or more than one product directives. Product directives consist of a rules and regulation for the product to be manufactured. Some product directives which cover large product ranges provide a set of standards for the product should conform; these standards are referred to as "Harmonized Standards". Harmonized Standards are the documents that list the technical specifications and test methods to verify the products to conform to the technical specification. Harmonized Standards are established by several European standards agencies (CEN, CENELEC, etc).

CE Marking also provides some advantages on the single market area of EEA making it simpler for the trading of products in the market. The marking on a product indicates the governmental officials of any country to verify that the product is legally or illegally placed on the market of their country. CE Marking on a product ensures the free movement of the product within the Single market area providing equal opportunities and equal standards to the Manufacturers and safe market to the consumers. CE Marking on a product also promotes the permission of withdrawal of the non-conforming products by EEA Customs.

Manufacturers

As CE Marking sole purpose is have a single market area with products of good quality and safety standards. The manufacturers play an important role in ensuring that products placed on this Market of the EEA meets those standards. They are responsible for ensuring that the products from them which are placed on the market meet the standards of EU safety, health, and environmental protection requirements.

To ensure the product with EU standards, manufacturers have to carry out the conformity assessment and issue the EU declaration of conformity before affixing the CE marking to a product. Only after the conformity assessment, the technical file of the product can be set up which supports the EU conformity declaration so that this product can be traded on the market. The conformity assessment can be done by the manufacturer themselves or by a notified body which is appointed by the national authorities. “Manufacturers have to follow these six steps to affix a CE marking to your product: Identify the applicable directive(s) and harmonized standards. Verify the specific requirements for the product. Identify whether an independent conformity assessment (by a notified body) is necessary. Test the product and check its conformity. Draw up and keep available the required technical documentation. Affix the CE marking and draw up the EU Declaration of Conformity.”

The above steps may differ according to the product as the conformity assessment procedure of the products varies mostly. Manufacturers should not affix CE marking to other products that does not fall under any of the directives as it is forbidden to do so.

Conformity assessment

The main objective of the European Commission is to ensure that the unsafe and non-compliant products should not enter the European Market. The conformity assessment is the process to ensure the standards of the product. The conformity assessment procedure is carried out on the product before the product enters the market. This procedure should provide the requirements that are met by the product. The assessment comprises of the testing, inspection and providing the technical certification of the product for the conformity. The test methods and procedure of the assessment are specified in the applicable harmonized standards of the product. The manufacturer can choose the procedure types from the directives if applicable. The assessment can be done by the manufacturer or by an independent organization known as notified bodies which are appointed by the national authorities.

If the manufacturers carry out the assessment by themselves, the most used assessment method is internal production control which is given as follows.

• Accessing and ensuring the list of directives and standards for the product.
• Create the requirements that should be fulfilled by the product.
• Create of the test plan and procedures according to the harmonized standards.
• Testing and verification of the product with requirement.
• Create Technical file or Technical documentation for the Conformity.
• Manufacturers draw up a written EU declaration of conformity to the authorities.
• Affix a proper CE Marking to the product according to the EU Commission.

The technical documentation that supports the conformity of the product varies with some products but the following documents are the most important in the technical documentation:

• A general description of the device, sometimes including photographs showing external features, Software versions, user information and installation manuals.
• Designs, manufacturing drawings and plans of components, assemblies, circuits.
• Descriptions and explanations necessary for the understanding of the drawings, plans and functioning.
• A list of harmonized standards applied for the products in full or in parts.
• Results of design calculations and tests.
• Test reports.

This paper’s topic is over the articles that CNN uses under its “Crime + Justice” category. The articles selected for the paper show multiple different cases that would be considered “celebrated cases” under “The Wedding Cake Model of Criminal Justice”. After looking through many of the articles, it appears all the cases under the category would be considered high profile and popular which is what fits under celebrated cases. In conclusion, after analyzing the cases that were picked, it seems CNN picks controversial topics that would get people thinking about specific ideas and whether things are being done correctly.

To understand the informal justice process and where to place cases, Samuel Walker created a way of describing it. Walker compares informal justice to a four-layer cake, explaining that with each level of the cake (starting from the bottom of the cake and going up) the cases become more and more serious or more and more famous. For example, petty theft would be considered the 4th level on the wedding cake because it is a misdemeanor. A misdemeanor is a less serious offense punishable by a fine, probation, or a short jail term usually less than one-year incarceration. The 3rd level of the cake would be for less serious offenses that could possibly be a felony. This level is more reserved for the younger or first-time offenders of things like burglary or a robbery preformed without guns. A felony is a serious offense such as murder, armed robbery, or rape. Punishment can range from imprisonment in state or federal institutions or even capital punishment. The 2nd level is for serious felonies only such as robberies involved with a lot of money, rape, and murder. However, the top of the cake, 1st level, is for the celebrated cases. This is reserved for the famous people, high publicity cases such as OJ Simpson, Micheal Jackson or the kidnapping of Elizabeth Smart. The high-profile cases like these also involve the full criminal justice process.

After reviewing the current justice articles on CNN’s website, many if not all the articles are about celebrities or of people with high popularity. Also, if the cases were not committed by highly popular individuals, they were captured by national headlines. This would fit under the top level of the cake, the celebrated cases, because the media typically focus on 1st level cases for views and to possibly bring about social change.

Bill Cosby, an American stand-up comedian, actor, author and recently a convicted sex offender was considered “America’s Dad”. Cosby within the years, was subject to highly publicized allegations of sexual assault. A lot of women have accused him of things such as sexual battery, child sexual abuse, and even sexual misconduct. On Tuesday, September 25, 2018 was sentenced to 3 to 10 years in state prison for the drugging and sexual assault of Andrea Constand which happened 14 years ago. His case represents the top level of the cake because of his popularity and how much coverage his case had. In fact, the whole page of CNN’s crime and justice was full of reports and updates involving him getting his sentence and mug shot.

Florida man Michael Drejka is the suspect of a shooting that happened in July 2018 over a handicapped parking space outside of a convenience store. After firing a round into Markeis McGlockton’s chest, the man crawled back into the store and fell in front of his child’s feet. McGlockton was later pronounced dead at the hospital. The case has gained some ground because of the Florida “stand your ground” law which also had the spotlight in the shooting death of teenager Trayvon Martin. According to Mark Randall and Hendrick DeBoer (2012), the castle Doctrine and “stand-your-ground” laws are affirmative defenses for individuals charged with criminal homicide. The law in Florida says that one can use deadly force to prevent death or great bodily harm before escaping because they have the right to be in that area regardless if there is a way to escape the situation. Originally, Drejka was going to walk away from this shooting with no repercussions; however, he was arrested in August 13, 2018 and remained in jail for 50 days before going on bail for $100,000. This case would be considered a celebrated case because it gained national headlines; even though the people involved were not popular. Also, the Black Lives Matter movement may have helped this case gain its fame on the national headlines as well.

Kavanaugh, the US supreme court nominee is being accused of sexually assaulting Christine Blasey Ford when they were teenagers at a party in Montgomery county, Maryland. Also, Deborah Ramirez accused Kavanaugh of exposing himself at a party when they were at college. She claimed that Kavanaugh pushed himself onto her without her consent. There is possibly more evidence from one of his school friends, Mark Judge. This case against Kavanaugh is considered a celebrated case because he is possibly going to hold a very important position in the US government. It is also close to mid-term elections which means that this could be very political and change the minds of many people.

Ortiz, Boxer and entertainer, was arrested after a months-long investigation by a family protection unit. Victor turned himself in on Tuesday September 25, 2018 and was booked at the East County Jail in Ventura County. His expected bail is going to be $100,000. Ortiz was charged with forcible oral copulation, forcible rape, and forcible digital penetration, according to police. This case would also be considered a celebrated case because Ortiz is a very popular fighter and entertainer. He had roles in “The Expendables” movies as well as TV shows.

Chaoqun, a 27-year old Chinese born man was arrested Tuesday September 26, 2018 in Chicago for supposedly spying for Beijing. He was accused of acting as an “illegal agent” and being part of China’s top espionage agency. Ji was allegedly tasked with identifying individuals for possible recruitment as spies. Army intelligence in a statement said “adding that he could face up to 10 years in prison if found guilty of acting as an illegal foreign agent. ” This case would be considered a celebrated case because it was a highly popularized case and the fact that the US military became involved with figuring out if Ji Chaoqun is guilty of spying on Americans working for US defense contractors. With the tensions growing between US and China, this could be the foreshadowing of a trade war between them.

Escobar, described as a violent predator, is thought to be the suspect of killing three homeless men as well as the attempted kiss on four different people. The victims that died, were result of injuries sustained from the violent attacks. The surviving victims of Escobar’s attacks left one on life support and 2 others in comas. Investigators believe that the reason for his attacks were robbery. Escobar has been caught and will be held without bail and is also expected to appear in court Wednesday September 26, 2018. This case is considered a celebrated case because it has become popular due to national headlines and because of how he could be connected to other attacks in Texas.

After recent spikes in homicide in Acapulco, Guerrero Coordination Group and joint operation of Mexican state and federal departments seized control of Acapulco’s police department on Wednesday September 26, 2018. The coordinated attack led to the disarmament and detainment of the police from the station. As of now, there were two police commanders that were arrested on murder charges and will be moved for their protection. Even though the city’s police are in shambles, the city will operate as per usual. This case would be considered as a celebrated case because of its place on national headlines and the fact that the Mexican military hard to be involved in the investigation.

All the cases that CNN reviews are all highly popularized cases that make it to the top of the headlines for millions to see. However, these cases are more than just popular news stories. They show the drastic changes that are happening all around us. With cases such as the fatal shooting of McGlockton, it goes to show us that maybe we need better laws to protect ourselves from trigger happy gun owners. Also, cases such as the one with Ji Chaoqun who was suspected of spying on American defense contractors, show the American people if they are as safe as they think. The cases that are reviewed on CNN’s “Crime + Justice” page.

In the criminal justice system there are a lot of different ways that people are treated based off the crime that they commited. If a person commits a mass murder while another person is arrested for forgery which one would get more attention? The mass murder would the case that attracts more attention because they want to focus on why and who did this compared to a small forgery case.  Samuel Walker developed a wedding cake model of the criminal justice system to show how cases are treated based on circumstances. There are four parts to the cake that show how cases are treated which I will be discussing.

The first part to this wedding cake is the celebrated cases. These are the crimes that get a lot more recognition than most of the other offenses. For example, the Cleveland kidnapping was talked about nationally because the women were held in captivity for more than 10 years and the guy was labeled insane by the public. A normal kidnapping act doesnt get that much notice. What about the Bill Cosby scandal? His case gets talked about more because of his famous background in acting. The procedures in these types of cases are no different than a normal case besides the fact that more people show up for them and the process is usually filmed and shown nationally. So, it just shows that if you have a famous background or act on a serious wrongdoing it will get more notice than some pf the less serious offenses.

The second part to this cake is the serious felonies. These crimes are usually the ones that are on a more heinous level. The people that commit these acts usually have a reputation for being a criminal and they have been in and out of the system most of their life. Most of the crimes that these people commit are robbery, burglary, assault, domestic violence, etc. The police and the courts involved with these cases try to get these people the most severe punishments and no chance to get their sentence reduced. They deserve to face the penalty for what they did.

On the third piece of the cake you will find the lesser felonies. These crimes are typically not as violent and not as serious. The acts are usually committed by people that have little to no criminal history at all. Typically they fall under possession of drugs, check fraud, forgery, or other less violent acts. Most of the time these cases will be resolved through a court appearance and end in a plea deal.

Lastly, the final piece to the cake is the misdemeanors. These crimes are what most people get charged with. They consist of very minor crimes like public disturbance, public intoxication, fighting in public, and so on. Law enforcement usually tries to resolve these by a ticket, or an overnight arrest. If they do happen to go to court it usually handled by them and ends with either a fine from the court, a plea deal or even the possibility of jail time.

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Now as read throughout the essay you can now see why a wedding cake model was created. All different types of crimes are treated differently and they all have different penalties. In some cases it's more severe than others so make sure to think before you act on committing crimes.

Arguably the greatest jazz musician of all time, Miles Davis’s genius when it comes to the trumpet and jazz as a whole is never ending. Although often overlooked due to later success, his album, Milestones, perfectly exemplifies the talents Davis possesses. Joined by John Coltrane on the tenor saxophone, Julian “Cannonball” Adderley playing the alto saxophone, Red Garland on the piano, Paul Chambers strumming the double bass, and Philly Joe Jones hammering away on the drums, Miles Davis formed a sextet of musicians at the beginning of their prime and showcased their talents for the world to see. This album deserves its praise as it is an important aspect in the development of each musicians career as well as jazz as a whole.

Born on May 26, 1926, Miles Dewey Davis III would grow to become one of the most influential and talented jazz musicians of all time. Birthed in Alton, Illinois, Davis was fortunate enough to be born into a relatively wealthy family. His father was a dentist with a steady income and in 1927 they moved to East St. Louis where they owned a large ranch. As a young child, Miles’s mother, who was a skilled blues pianist in her own right, wanted him to learn the violin; however, at the age of thirteen, his father gifted him a brand new trumpet and began arranging lessons for him with a local trumpeter named Elwood Buchanan. Unlike many musicians of the time, Buchanan insisted that Miles played without any vibrato, which ended up sticking with Miles his whole career as he continuously played with his signature clear tone. Interestingly enough, every time he played using heavy vibrato, Buchanan would slap him across the knuckles with a ruler. When he was sixteen years old, Miles was already a member of the musician’s union and was working professionally when not attending classes during high school.

He was persuaded to join bands, but remained in high school so he would finish out his education process at the request of his mother. In 1944, Miles was picked up as a third trumpet for a brief stint with the Billy Eckstine band, a band which featured Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker, two titans of the industry; however, even with all this newfound success and notoriety, Miles’s parents were still keen on him finishing his academic studies. That same year, Davis moved to New York City, taking a scholarship at the Julliard School of Music. He immediately stopped his academic work and went on the search for Charlie Parker. With an already distinctive style, he became a member of Parker’s quintet in 1945. In 1948, Davis looked to escape the shadow and become a lead figure in jazz as his own recording career was beginning to flourish. As apart of a nonet, Davis signed with Capitol Records in 1949 and even participated in the Paris Jazz Festival that same year. Through the first half of the 1950s, Davis recorded with Prestige Records and Blue Note records with a number of smaller groups and a plethora of musicians. It was at this time that he developed a serious heroin addiction. After going “cold turkey” on the drug in 1954, Davis began incorporating the Harmon mute in his music in order to subdue and darken the sound of his trumpet. This sound would be associated with him for the entirety of his career. This all led to the beginning of Davis becoming a god, and brings us right to the late 1950s and his album Milestones.

Miles Davis recorded this album with the help of some very talented musicians who gained popularity and notoriety from performing alongside Miles. The biggest name besides Miles that was featured in the sextet was John Coltrane. Also known as “Trane” he specialized in bebop and hard bop early in his career and was a perfect fit alongside Miles on the album. Coltrane was a freelancer in Philadelphia at the time Miles called him to join him in the quintet. Similar to Miles, he too struggled mightily with heroin addiction. The recordings of the quintet throughout the mid 1950s truly showcased his growing ability. Trane left the group briefly before returning for Milestones. Joining Davis and Trane in the quintet was pianist Red Garland. Oddly enough, due to his fandom of boxing, Miles brought Garland in because he was impressed that he had boxed earlier in his life; however, Garland did not disappoint as he infused his own distinctive chords with the light and harmonic style of one of Davis’s influencers, Ahmad Jamal. Next in the quintet was Paul Chambers, a double bassist known for impeccable timing, intonation, and his incredible improvisations. He was also known for his solos throughout the course of his career.

Chambers work with the quintet had been regarded as some of the most rhythmically and harmonically supportive bass playing in jazz history. The final member of the quintet was Philly Joe Jones. Miles Davis has gone on the record saying that Jones was his favorite drummer and when he would look for other drummers, he would always listen for Jones in them. These five men made up the “great” Miles Davis Quintet and together they recorded and put out some of the best music of the mid 1950s; however, in 1958, when Milestones was recorded, another musician was added to the group. Julian “Cannonball” Adderley was a talented alto saxophonist who played with Ray Charles in the early 1940s before moving to New York City in 1955. He joined the group in 1957 a few months before Trane made his return to the group. Miles brought him into the group due to his blues style alto saxophone sound. In 1958, Milestones was released and each member of the group made their own personal decisions for their own betterment. Trane moved on and released his first album with Atlantic Records containing all his own compositions, capitalizing on the recognition and success he received from being showcased by Miles and would go on to become one of the most successful jazz musicians before he died in 1967.

Red Garland formed his own trio after the album’s production and became quite successful in his own right, leading dozens of recording sessions for multiple labels. Davis and Garland had a strained relationship by 1958, leading to Garland actually walking out on one of the sessions for Milestones and Davis firing him. Philly Joe Jones continued to work as a sideman for a plethora of other musicians for the remainder of his career. Bill Evans has openly stated that Jones was his all-time favorite drummer. Chambers remained with Miles for a few more years before moving on and working with the Wynton Kelly trio for a handful of years. Similar to Coltrane, Chambers died early in 1969 as he battled with alcohol and heroin addictions; however, he is still known as one of the most distinctive and influential bass players to this day. Adderley formed his own quintet after his work with Miles and enjoyed much more success than he did earlier in his career when he tried the same thing. The album Milestones showcased all these men and their supreme talent. Undeniably they were all much better off having worked with Miles as he allowed them to have time in the spotlight and show the world how talented they were. This group was one of the most talented in jazz history.

Having put together a quite formidable group, Davis proceeded to record Milestones in two different segments on February 4, 1958 and March 4, 1958 respectively. The album was released on September 2, 1958 after being recorded in Columbia 30th Street Studio in New York City. Having come out of detox, Coltrane was prepared to regain his jazz prowess. Miles knew he wouldn’t be able to keep the group together for long because each one of them was clearly becoming a jazz sensation in their own right. This was clearly evident when his pianist, Red Garland, got up and left in the middle of a recording session on “Sid’s Ahead”. With nowhere else to turn, Miles played piano himself on this song, an incredible feat of music; however, Garland didn’t leave without making his mark.

On the song “Billy Boy”, he demonstrates just how capable he is when playing incredibly with his well-developed bebop style. The album itself is the height of bebop, as Davis plays without his iconic Harmon mute and the tunes, featuring the fast tempo rapid chord changes that bebop embodies. The rapid chord changes by the two talented saxophonists as they trade improvisations on “Dr. Jackle” is bebop at its very finest, zipping around and keeping the listeners on their toes. The contrast of Adderley’s spirited alto and Coltrane’s heavy assault with his tenor play perfectly off each other and show the genius of Miles Davis to get this pairing together. This album embodied everything bebop was, but really what it is most known for is its prelude to Davis’s next album, Kind of Blue.

The unique aspect of this album was Miles Davis’s exploration of modals especially when looking at the featured track, “Milestones”. While many saw modals as limiting, Davis jumped at the idea of chord-based improvisation. Rather than switching from one mode to the other and playing all over the map, Miles wanted to test out what it would be like to improvise just by running through chords and scales. It was soon realized that modal jazz didn’t take away from the energy and pace when changing chords, which allowed for the same bebop type of feel. More and more musicians saw what Miles was doing and attempted to take their own crack at modal jazz especially following the release of Kind of Blue. Coltrane himself even took the modal style with him when he played in his own quartet in the 1960s. Bill Evans took his shot at the modal style in the early 1960s. Davis elaborated on modal form saying, “When you play in this way, you can go on forever. You don’t have to worry about changes…You can do more with the musical line” (Gioia, 264). He later went on to say that he could see a movement starting in jazz toward more of the modal style.

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This album is in the Grammy Hall of Fame and has sold well throughout the years and even still today. While this may have just been a warm up towards Kind of Blue, it is important to not underestimate the effect this album had on the jazz community and the musicians who were apart of this glorious sextet.

Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn so innocently reveals the potential nobility of human nature in its well-loved main characters that it could never successfully support anything so malicious as slavery. Huckleberry Finn and traveling companion Jim, a runaway slave, are unknowing champions for humility, mercy, and selflessness. The adventurous nature of the story and its noble characters celebrates freedom from social and economic restraint, and it is apparent from the beginning through his satiric portrayal of human characteristics that Twain believes that all people deserve their own freedom.

While Twain's story does have the outward appearance of a boyhood adventure tale, it is impossible to overlook the symbolic nature in the two "runaways'" desires for such an adventure. Both Huck and Jim are running away from the social constraints of their worlds. Huck feels confined by his new "civilised" life, and Jim by his slave status. In the Widow Douglas' household, Huck is not allowed to indulge himself in his former delights of boyhood. He feels trapped by the various social rules and expectations the two widows try to enforce upon him. Jim is confined by the bonds of slavery into an uncomfortable and immobile spot in society- one that restricts him from being with his own family. Thus the two "prisoners" begin their escape for freedom. And, while it is natural that Twain placed the story on the wide and powerful Mississippi River where he spent part of his life, there is also a symbolic gesture in the setting. While Huck and Jim travel down the flowing river, they feel a distance from stagnant society on the river's banks. On the natural river, they are free from the shortcomings and evils of human nature that exist in the man-made towns they have known. On the raft, there is no practical need for racism or greed. The boy and slave are simply two travelers bound for bigger and better waters.

Twain is largely successful in illustrating his support of the deserved freedom of the human condition through his main characters. Huck is an innocent young boy who relies only on his surprisingly sharp criticism of human nature and a goodness and gentle-heartedness that he is not even aware of. Huck's youthful ignorance and lack of education allow for the innocence that makes him such a believable and effective protagonist. Despite his age, however, he is still able to discern the often hypocritical actions of the adults around him. For example, he cannot understand why the fine people of the Grangerford family would be involved in something so horrible and ridiculous as a feud. When Jim become a part of the journey, Huck, much to the argument of his misguided conscience, shows mercy and, eventually, respect towards Jim. Bestowing respect upon a slave would have taken a lot of humility for a white boy, and Huck certainly possessed humility. He had no desire for material possessions, or even a very strong desire for money. Jim's good nature and kindness is indisputable in the novel. He commits himself to watching over Huck during their journey, and often does so at his own expense. The reader cannot help but to admire Jim's love for his family and kind, selfless nature. All of these characteristics innocence, mercy, humility, kindness are not elements that support the institution of slavery2E Perhaps Twain is suggesting that the potential goodness of human nature that exists in his characters could exist in a world without slavery.

Furthermore, Twain has mastered the use of situational and verbal irony and satire, and uses this to reveal truths about human nature. Twain places some instances of dialogue that are so blatantly racist that one cannot help but wonder if the author went to extremes to simply make his point. For example, Aunt Sally asks Huck if anyone was hurt on the steamboat and he replies that it only "killed a nigger," to which Aunt Sally replies, "Well, it's lucky; because sometimes people do get hurt." This one statement is so obviously wrong that it seems Twain is not advocating prejudice, but simply displaying it's wrongfulness. This use of irony is implemented throughout the dialogue in the novel, and, while anti-slavery supporters could misinterpret Twain's ambition, the other elements in the novel help support the author's true intentions. It is apparent that he believes that, if put into simple words, one could easily see that such racist views are very hypocritical of the good qualities of human nature that Twain so highly values. Furthermore, the most racist people and advocators of slavery in the novel are always depicted in a negative light. For instance, Twain gives little respect to the King and the Duke who split up the slave family at the Wilks household, or the mob of angry farmers at the Phelps who want to kill Jim. Twain's open critique of slavery and its supporters and racial prejudice, therefore, do indeed mark him as an advocate for human freedom.

In conclusion, Twain uses the qualities of his main characters and the freedom they seek, as well as criticism of the racial views of the society that Huck and Jim occupy, to illustrate his belief that all humans possess the right to be free, if they so desire it. While it is doubtful that Twain would give himself the title of "abolitionist," he certainly states in Huckleberry Finn that he does not believe that imposing an institution such as slavery on any person cannot be deemed any other than a blatant violation against morality. Slavery is indeed an immense evil of society, and Twain uses the contrasting goodness of people like Huck and Jim to battle against it. It is also apparent that Twain does not admire the constraints of society, and, like Huck, would rather be free from it and its hypocrisy. Therefore it is doubtful that he could support an institution like slavery that had such aristocratic roots. Twain's characters are too noble, his views of white society too critical, for him to be blamed as a supporter of slavery; he is instead a motivator of the human desire to be free.