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IntroductionOver the years, prints ads that are used for beer and cigarette prom ...

Introduction

Over the years, prints ads that are used for beer and cigarette promotions have been undergoing a lot of changes over the years from the 1940s. Although most of these changes in the print ads have been changing to appeal to more customers and sway them to purchase the commodities, in some instances the changes in the print ads have been taking place to avoid government regulations. As much as the use of beer and cigarette has been subsequently grown over the years, print ads cannot be undermined as the role they play in initiating the use of these drugs is immense. It is for this reason that most government agencies have been set up very strict regulations to try and limit the promotions that beers are given as well as the use of beer and cigarette. Many argue that among the most prevalent drugs, the abuse of beer and cigarettes high since in almost all parts of the globe these are the drugs that are legal (Kelly and Edwards, 1998). Thus the use of these drugs is very high across the globe, one because of them being legal; but also because they are affordable by many. This paper thus looks at the print ads and the various forms of promotions for beer and cigarette over the years from the late 1940s to the present time.

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The paper dwells on the changes that have been taking place regarding promotions touching on beer and cigarette (Madden and Grube, 1994). Thus as the paper carries out its critical analysis, it is very important to understand that the need to create more awareness on the presence of cigarette and beer, adverts have been changing to measure up to the regulations set by most governments and sway more use by the public (Madden and Grube, 1994). Lastly, this paper also looks at the various changes in social norms that have been taking place when it comes to beer consumption as well as the use of cigarettes.

To begin with, there has been an evolution in the use of ads in adverts for various products and services across the globe. For instance, in the 1940s cigarette ads were out to sway more use of the product. Back then, health authorities had very little information regarding the use of the cigarette. In fact, things were not as advanced as they are now whereby it was common for even pregnant women to be noted smoking cigarettes even in public. Adverts were out to sway the public, and these ads were not limited to pregnant women. One example of this print ad that was famous in the 1940s is the Camel cigarette ad (Kelly and Edwards, 1998). This ad featured a company trying to convince more pregnant women to engage in cigarette smoking. The ad showed a pregnant woman holding cigarette in her fingers indicating that she was engaging in smoking the blunt. Furthermore, the reasons that were noted in the print ad was that smoking is good because it tastes good. One, as is currently known, cigarette is bad for pregnant mothers as they affect the bad growth development of the child (Madden and Grube, 1994). Thus it is fair to note that most cigarette ads and beer print ads that were used in the years back then gave little regard to human health.

All the same with the introduction of technology and the advancement being made in health, the effects of smoking tobacco were made, and mothers were discouraged from smoking which saw this ad being banned later in the years that came (Madden and Grube, 1994). Another example of such an ad was that of a doctor and even a child being involved in beer and cigarette promotions. Back then, most promotions did not consider all aspects of life in the design and the use of their ads for the various advertisements (Kelly and Edwards, 1998). The use of children in promoting drugs currently is banned in most parts of the world, and persons of influence are also not expected to participate in these promotions as well. While children are considered minors currently, in the 1950s and the 1960s they were used in the print ads as they appealed to the public more as compared to average persons.

On the same note, upon the realization by beer and cigarette manufacturers that they need to stand out if they are to sway more use from the public for these commodities; they opted to make their ads stand out (Madden and Grube, 1994). Thus over the years, the level of creativity has improved, and these adverts have also been custom made to ensure that they abide by the regulations and the rules set by government agencies. For instance, over the years the use of minors was banned as well as the use of graphic images that negatively affected various visual aspects (Kelly and Edwards, 1998). If any company was to come up with print ads, they were to ensure that the ads abided by set regulations such as the inclusion of an image showing the negative use of cigarette. For instance, in the late 1990s, the government passed regulation and formed a campaign aimed at reducing the use of cigarettes by teens thus most companies were required to add to their adverts that the use of cigarettes and beer was not recommended for those under the age of 18 years (Madden and Grube, 1994). In fact, the adverts were required to boldly indicate the age limit for the use of these drugs. Thus evolution in regulations over the years saw to it that most print ads were to abide by these regulations among many others.

On a different note, it is important to note that when it comes to beer and cigarette adverts, they have evolved in that the current times these ads are based on most social media platforms (Kropp et al., 1999). While in the 1940s these ads were printed in newspapers and magazines, currents the adverts are featured in television programs as commercials and other social media platforms such as Facebook, and Twitter and Instagram among many others (Kelly and Edwards, 1998). The evolution in the platforms used for promotions is so massive that companies are now hiring professionals to spearhead these campaigns. Social media platforms such as Facebook among many others in this Century especially the last two decades has proved very effective when it comes to the marketing of different commodities. Since these promotions are aimed at creating more awareness and expand their market by reaching out to more users, social media offers the best platforms for these objectives (Madden and Grube, 1994). Thus currently it is common to come across a beer promotion and cigarette ads on Facebook and on Twitter as compared to coming across the same ad in a newspaper. Thus the adverts being used have also changed the appeals that were used and that are depicted in the various adverts on social media.

When it comes to looking at the appeals that are used in the prints ads over the years to reach out to more users of cigarettes and beer, most adverts use fear, humor, rationale, and bandwagon. For instance, in the 1940s and the 1950s, humor was commonly used to appeal to the public. For instance, Camel cigarette used a child holding cigarette as well as a pregnant woman smoking to appeal to more users. As much as most of these adverts, later on, were banned and done away with, the aspect of humor had proved very effective. Another example of such a humorous beer ad is the Fosters advertising (Kelly and Edwards, 1998). This advert indicates two men alongside a dog all celebrating and enjoying a beer. The beer point pub-Paulaner is another humorous advert that was used in the 2000s. In the 1970s and the 1980s, most beer ads used bandwagon to appeal to the consumers. Most of the adverts in these two decades showed individuals enjoying popular beers and cigarettes while those that were not using the same products were left out. Rational was also commonly used in the 1970s as well as in the 2000s. Consumers used aspects of cost quality features in the ads to appeal to the consumers (Kropp et al., 1999).

Lastly, changes in social norms regarding the use of tobacco and beer. In the 1940s-197-s tobacco was commonly used by those that were in the army, in the 1980s to the current times, this has reduced although the use of tobacco and beer is very common with those in the army. Another social norm that has changed is the use of tobacco and beer among the youth. In the 140s all the way to the 1980s, these of these drugs were if anything barred by the youth (Kelly and Edwards, 1998). Over, in the 1990sto the 2000s the youth are the ones commonly associated with cigarette smoking as well, as alcohol consumption. Additionally, smoking in public was not common in the 1940s to the 1960s (Madden and Grube, 1994). However, this changed in the 1980s to the 2000s smoking in public was common. Women were even commonly noted walking with cigarettes in the 1990s. Beer consumption was private in the 1970s as it was taken in bars and joints (Kropp et al., 1999). Currently, beer is taken in public as it is canned. People are even easily seen strolling around with beers in their arms.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, there has been evolution when it comes to the adverts used to raise awareness for different products and commodities. It is important to note that the evolution has resulted because there has been a change in the platforms that reach out to more people. While in the past newspapers and magazines were common, currently social media is the most effective means. Looking at cigarette and beer promotions, it is clear that the ads have evolved with time. The regulations also controlling these adverts have also changed with time as government agencies are now more vigilant in the adverts as compared to the 1940s. All in all, adverts are aimed at creating more awareness and promoting certain products and beer, as well as cigarette, are achieving huge milestones.


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In practical subjects, like math, it is often frowned upon to find your own way ...

In practical subjects, like math, it is often frowned upon to find your own way of doing something. Students are expected to pay attention to their lessons and use the exact same methods that are presented to figure out problems that are given to them. Literature, a much more liberal subject, allows for a writer to reach their conclusion through any means they see fit. This literary liberty results in many different pieces that have the same goal, theme, or message. James Baldwin’s “Sonny’s Blues” and Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech use two different techniques and styles to discuss the issue of black oppression in America. Baldwin’s short story uses the life of a fictional character to show the disadvantages and hardships typical in the lives of black Americans. King’s speech uses forceful figurative language and repetition to call his audience to action and fight racial segregation. Both authors focus on the condition of black America, but what each chooses to do with the subject is completely different in style and approach.

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Baldwin uses a technique for presenting the subject of racial inequality that presents his message through his characters and their experiences. The use of fiction to discuss a real world issue makes the writing more creative and more accessible to a broader audience. The type of fictional political writing that is seen in Sonny’s Blues aims to combine enjoyable reading with a clear, strong point. Baldwin’s purpose in his technique is to make his message more accessible to a wider audience. He writes so that all people could understand his writing, not just his peers or other people of the same intellect. The style Baldwin uses for his piece allows more people to read and understand his work than would if he were to have written a scholarly nonfiction essay on the same subject.

In “Sonny’s Blues” Baldwin tells the story of the struggle of black people with racial inequality using a nameless narrator. The narrator himself has a decent life with a relatively uneventful upbringing, a good job, and a family. The narrator’s brother, Sonny, is not as fortunate. Sonny, the character used as the poster for black disadvantage, is a heroin addict and dealer. He struggles with incarceration due to drugs, trying to make his family proud, and finding a passion for something in his life. The author uses Sonny as an example of how young black men in America can easily fall onto the wrong path as a result of the disadvantages that they inherit when they are born. In the beginning of the story, the narrator explains the day he found out that his brother had been arrested for drug possession. In his story Baldwin writes, “…here I was, talking about algebra to a lot of boys who might, every one of them for all I knew, be popping off needles every time they went to the head.” The narrator acknowledges the vulnerability of all his young students to be negatively socialized by their surroundings. He can see that they have the same chance of falling prey to societal evils that Sonny did. The narrator knows that his brother’s hardships are a result of the environment he grew up in and is therefore able to recognize his students’ susceptibility to going down that same road. This is the point that Baldwin makes. He implies that black people grow up and make decisions based on the strong influences created by black oppression in the society they live in. He further argues that the decisions they make tend to be negative and harmful.

Martin Luther King Jr., unlike Baldwin, took the most direct route possible to address the problem facing his people. While Baldwin’s fictional story took a more observational approach to the issue, King’s speech was direct. He looked his audience in the eye and pleaded with them to take action, warning that if they did not act their condition would not improve. He analyzed the situation of Blacks in America and then told them exactly what they needed to do to fix it. In contrast to Baldwin’s laidback style, King wrote and delivered his speech with an extremely high level of urgency. Recognizing the directness, and sort of nonfiction, of King’s speech is not to say that it was not artfully crafted. “I Have a Dream” is of the most significant speeches in American history. King’s speech is loaded with figurative language, repetition, and other literary devices. The speech is a work of art that was used to inspire action. The goal in using the frequent metaphors and repetition in the speech is meant to hold the audience’s attention and arouse feedback. King is clearly successful in accomplishing that goal because during the speech, the audience is actively engaged and responsive. They agree verbally, they cheer, they shout. Like Baldwin, King’s aim in using writing techniques that make his text more accessible is to make his message able to be communicated to a broader audience. He plays to the audience he has and it makes the speech highly effective.

While “Sonny’s Blues” and “I Have a Dream” use two completely different structural methods in broaching the subject of racial inequality, they do focus on similar points. One common theme between the two works is unity. In “Sonny’s Blues” this topic is brought up in the scene between the narrator and Sonny’s mother. The mother tells the narrator that he has to look out for Sonny because Sonny has no one else. Baldwin uses this scene to discuss how familial support and togetherness are incredibly important in achieving success. King’s speech, too, incorporates unity as a central theme. Though this statement it is not written explicitly, the speech is directed to the audience as a whole. He uses the term “we” throughout the entire speech to communicate that he and the audience and every black person are all in it together. The turnout of the audience combined with the speech itself shows how important unity is and how much of a difference it can make.

Presentation is a huge part of writing. Demonstrated in James Baldwin’s “Sonny’s Blues” and Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech, the method of presentation that an author chooses hugely affects how effective a work is in reaching its audience. Although Baldwin and King travel different roads, they reach the same destination: addressing racial segregation in America. Baldwin illustrates the day-to-day reality of it and King issues an inspirational call to action.


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In the book of Genesis, God creates humans to serve as caretakers for the world ...

In the book of Genesis, God creates humans to serve as caretakers for the world that he created. He creates a garden to nourish them and to provide a location in which he can speak with the pair. Even after Adam and Eve are expelled from the Garden of Eden by God, he still interacts with them and their descendants. These interactions usually serve as a message to the rest of humanity either by setting an example or defining what is right and wrong. An argument could be made that his interactions with humanity both as a whole and on an individual level changes him from a very involved god to a much less-involved one. This change is shown to be possible through his regret, and it is demonstrated through the contrasting methods that he uses to interact with humanity along with the difference in the way he punishes sins.

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God’s regret indicates that he is able to change. When “the Lord saw how great was man’s wickedness on earth… [He] regretted that He had made man on earth, and His heart was saddened.” (Genesis 6:5) If he regrets making mankind, then he would have not made mankind if he knew that they would be corrupted – therefore, he is capable of changing his decisions. If he was perfect, then he would not be able to change; however, since his decisions are shown to cause him to have regret, then he is not a perfect being, meaning that he is also able to change in character and behavior.

At the start of Genesis, God is a very active god – he has a personal connection with his world and wants to take part in not only its creation but also its development. In the first creation story, God sees the world as good whereas in the second, God desires to actively maintain it. This is exemplified when “…God banished [Adam] from the garden of Eden, to till the soil from which he was taken.” (Genesis 3:23) God responds to Adam and Eve’s consumption of the forbidden fruit by directly intervening and exiling them from the Garden, something that an controlling, imminent God would do. He also takes extremely drastic action when his mistake is realized by him – he drowns the whole world in a great flood because he deemed it unredeemable. Additionally, he has many direct one-on-one conversations with certain chosen people in the beginning, such as the various interactions he has with Abraham. God favored Abraham due to his unwavering loyalty and unquestioning obedience of God’s commands, even to the point of “not withholding [his] son, [his] favored one.” (Genesis 22:2) God wants to directly control the actions of the people on Earth by rewarding them whenever he is obeyed. All of these actions expresses his tight grip on the world’s actions and people. Unfortunately, whenever he becomes directly involved in worldly affairs, it almost always results in something evil or catastrophic happening such as the Flood and the murder of Abel. These disasters makes God learn a lesson: direct interference with the world only results in a bad outcome.

A turning point in his strictness is shown when Jacob engages a covenant with God, in which he instructs Jacob to “be fertile and increase.” (Genesis 35:11) The covenant is essentially a contract between God and humanity in which humanity promises to be recognize God’s sovereignty in exchange for prosperity and happiness. God’s change is shown through this contract, as he now realizes that a mutual agreement between his people and him is more likely to work that a continual reminder of their need to obey him. From this point on, God is never again mentioned directly speaking or guiding anyone through personal guidance for the rest of Genesis; instead, he becomes more of an abstract, less involved god. He still communicates with humanity, but now it is through dreams rather than direct conversations. The dreams serve as a solution to his desire to maintain the world but without directly interfering. For example, the Pharaoh has two dreams of alternating seasons of fertility followed by a large famine. Although he could not interpret the dream, the Pharaoh’s questions were answered when God inspires Joseph to interpret the Pharaoh’s dream. Instead of directly telling Joseph the answers, he nudges Joseph in the right direction. This is an major difference which seems to be caused by the lesson he learned from his prior experiences with the Flood and other disasters.

God’s attitude towards sins also change from beginning to end. When Cain kills Abel, God is shocked by Cain’s sin, asking him “What have you done?” (Genesis 4:10) He was then cursed to wander the Earth and never have plentiful harvests, among many other punishments. Compare this curse to the lack of one placed on Lamech, Cain’s fifth-generation son. Lamech kills two people and then proceed to brag about it, saying how he is untouchable because “If Cain is avenged sevenfold, Then Lamech seventy-sevenfold.” (Genesis 4:23-24) God does not respond to Lamech’s boast, which is rather interesting, as both Cain and Lamech has the same severity of sin. After cursing Cain, God shows no indication of doing anything to Lamech. Surprisingly, God seems to want only to make an example out of Cain and stop there.

It may be argued that God cannot change, as he is a perfect being and everything that he does is already planned. His regret of making the human race is indicative of his imperfection, as a perfect being would not regret anything that he did. Because God is imperfect, he is capable of change. Changing from the beginning, God can be seen to shift from a controlling, strict deity to a much more subtle, background role after he creates a covenant with people. His experiences with humanity not only shows that God is able to change, but also that he is actively learning how to maintain a world as it progresses, suggesting that he does not know the true course for his own creation.

Works Cited

  1. Alter, R. (1997). Genesis: Translation and Commentary. W. W. Norton & Company.
  2. Brueggemann, W. (2010). Genesis. John Knox Press.
  3. Coogan, M. D. (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press.
  4. Dever, W. G. (2017). Beyond the Texts: An Archaeological Portrait of Ancient Israel and Judah. SBL Press.
  5. Friedman, R. E. (2017). The Bible with Sources Revealed: A New View into the Five Books of Moses. HarperOne.
  6. Hamilton, V. P. (1990). The Book of Genesis: Chapters 1-17. Eerdmans.
  7. McKenzie, S. L. (1996). The Trouble with Kings: The Composition of the Book of Kings in the Deuteronomistic History. Eerdmans.
  8. Niditch, S. (1996). Underdogs and Tricksters: A Prelude to Biblical Folklore. Westminster John Knox Press.
  9. Scherman, N. (Ed.). (2006). The Chumash: The Stone Edition. Mesorah Publications.
  10. Ska, J. L. (2018). Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns.

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Table of contentsIntroductionExamples of guilt in Hamlet and Fifth BusinessConcl ...

Table of contents

  1. Introduction
  2. Examples of guilt in Hamlet and Fifth Business
  3. Conclusion
  4. Works Cited

Introduction

Guilt, like a disease of the mind, has the power to consume one's sanity, govern one's emotions and demolish one's life. In the play Hamlet by William Shakespeare and in the novel Fifth Business by Robertson Davies, guilt dominates the lives of multiple characters by negatively impacting their fates. This unfortunate fact can be seen through how guilt arises from a flaw in the character's personality, induces a burden on the life of a loved one, and leads to an inevitable death. In both Hamlet and Fifth Business, guilt emerges from a flaw in the character's persona, leading to that character's tragic ending.

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Examples of guilt in Hamlet and Fifth Business

In Hamlet, the two main characters that exhibit guilty emotions are Claudius and Hamlet. The incident that initiated the conflicts between several characters is the murder of King Hamlet, committed by his own brother Claudius. Claudius’s fatal flaw is his egotistical nature which distorts his state of mind and compels him to put power above all else. This provokes Claudius’s guilt, which quickly starts to possess him as “His stronger guilt defeats[his strong intents”(3.3.40, Shakespeare) of maintaining his position. Moreover, Hamlet suspects that Claudius is the murderer, bringing more attention upon Claudius’s sins. Hence, Claudius’s ambition to maintain his position as King develops from his selfless values which determine his disastrous destiny. As well, Hamlet’s guilt is caused by his hamartia; his inability to avenge his father. Instead of taking action, Hamlet blames himself for delaying his father’s instructions to punish Claudius. Therefore, Hamlet’s tendency to overthink prevents him from taking action and pushes him towards self-condemnation, towards placing his life in danger. Hamlet’s thoughts are immensely warped by his guilt, changing his perspective on life and leading to his downfall.

In Fifth Business, Boy Staunton, much like King Claudius, is a man of authority. He is successful, wealthy, intelligent, and extremely arrogant; however, his imperfections are his blinding ambition and his selfishness. Boy’s strong desire for success ultimately leads to his unconscious guilt and his demise. Guilt is an illusion to Boy. Consciously, guilt is meaningless to him because he holds ambition over the well-being of Leola. Unconsciously, Boy is lost in the shadow of his guilt: he “had no clarity of mind that would ease him of guilt when he deceived Leola—as he did, with variety and regularity among the free-spirited girls he met” (107, Davies). Unlike Hamlet's and Claudius's, Boy’s guilt is indeed unconscious. By lying to Leola, he conceals his guilt and concentrates on advancing his power. This approach displays Boy’s self centeredness as the fatal flaw which brings him to ruin. In both pieces of literature, guilt is caused by the indissoluble flaws in the medium of the minds of these characters, flaws that lead down a road of despair and torment. All in all, the characters' hamartia contributes to their guilt that affects not only them but also those closest to them.

Furthermore, the negative impacts of guilt in both Hamlet and Fifth Business are evident through the actions that are driven by remorse. In different ways, the main characters put the lives of their significant others in jeopardy, and eventually both their lives ends. In Hamlet, Hamlet is greatly affected by his guilt. His happiness is depleted and his clouded thoughts cause ruthless intentions. Due to his overwhelming shame, Hamlet speaks to Ophelia with words like daggers when he tells her, “Get thee to a nunnery, farewell. Or, if thou wilt needs marry, marry a fool, for wise men know well enough what monsters you make of them” (3.1.138-40, Shakespeare). In turn, this attitude has an immediate effect on Ophelia, as her mind descends into a whirlpool of madness. As a result, Hamlet, who cannot cope with his guilt, indirectly kills the woman whom he truly loved, Ophelia. On the contrary, King Claudius utilizes a different approach in dealing with his guilty conscience. He anticipates that his power of manipulation will insure his position and alleviate his guilt. By the time Hamlet discovers Claudius is the murderer during the play, “The Murder of Gonzago,” it becomes apparent to Claudius that Hamlet is convicting him of murder. Since Hamlet is the living persona of Claudius’s impeding guilt, Claudius urgently acts to send Hamlet to England. Claudius plots a plan to eliminate Hamlet and in the process he exploits other characters such as Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, Laertes and his Queen in order to maintain his throne. Nevertheless, this plan backfires on King Claudius as he poisons his wife, Gertrude. While he cares for Gertrude, his guilt-driven ambition to kill Hamlet and his dignity are more important to him. Like Hamlet, Claudius enables his guilt to control him in unwanted ways. In both situations, Hamlet and Claudius lose their loved one due to their overpowering guilt.

In addition, the burden in Boy’s unconscious brings his partner Leola to mental deterioration. Boy strives for perfection and superiority over others, “he wanted to make her into the perfect wife for a rising young entrepreneur in sugar” by enforcing Leola to meet a certain criteria that she cannot achieve (126, Davies). Furthermore, Boy’s repressed guilt is projected through his attitude towards women. Despite being married, Boy engages in multiple affairs with other women. When Leola discovers this, she is immediately drained of her sanity. Similarly to Ophelia's, Leola’s health disintegrates and her life diminishes. Remarkably, Boy does not attend Leola’s funeral and quickly remarries, revealing that he does not consciously feel guilty. However, his unconscious guilt continues growing until it tears him apart.

Although all characters suffer the effects of their immoral actions differently, they all lose their lovers and lose themselves descending to their tragic endings. Lastly, those characters who are unable to confront their guilt face their definitive ends. Despite Claudius’s attempts to abolish his sins by praying for forgiveness, his guilt is still evident through his malicious plans. Guilt turns Claudius into a ferocious villain because he indulges in murderous actions instead of retaining his guilt and atoning for his selfless actions. Foremost, King Claudius creates a formula for his own destruction, when he sets up the fencing duel between Hamlet and Laertes. He manipulates Laertes to injure Hamlet with the tip of his deadly sword and as well he prepares a fatal drink. However, his fate takes a turn for the worst when Laertes is fatally poisoned by his own sword. Laertes admits, “The foul practice hath turn'd itself on me. Lo, here I lie, never to rise again. Thy mother’s poison'd. I can no more. The king. The king's to blame”(5.2.319-22, Shakespeare). This motivates Hamlet to murder the King by using the venomous sword and Claudius’s own poisonous drink which brings him to death. By this time, Hamlet also meets his downfall as a result of his guilt. Hamlet spends the majority of his time contemplating about life and death, therefore he holds back his responsibility to avenge his father. Hamlet, carrying his overwhelming guilt explains to Horatio, “Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting that would not let me sleep...Rashly- and praised to be rashness for it: let us know our indiscretion sometimes serves us well”(5.2.4-8, Shakespeare,). Thus, Hamlet’s guilt from losing Ophelia and failing to punish Claudius is causing him to act impulsively,suggesting that Hamlet cannot differentiate between what is right and wrong. Ultimately, Hamlet makes the wrong decision of dueling Laertes even after his good friend Horatio warned him. This causes Hamlet to meet his predetermined tragedy. Suddenly, Hamlet's life is consumed by a flesh wound from Laertes’s poisonous sword and by his own enemy, his guilt.

Likewise, Boy suffers a tragic fate. His guilt is a time bomb living inside his mind that calculates his every action. In fact, the more Boy neglects his guilt, the closer he brings himself to his death. Boy does not realize this accumulated guilt is the deadly weapon that exists within him counting down his seconds to live. When Dunstan reveals the stone and confronts Boy with the truth about his past, Boy still denies his actions because his shadow has overpowered him. However, the damage has been done, as Boy only has a few moments remaining to live. By the time he tries to overcome his shadow, his guilt has manifested and even his ambition could not combat the destructive time bomb that is guilt. Hence, Paul Dempster grants Boy’s internal wish by freeing him from his guilt and his shadow, in the act of ending his life. Notably, Boy committed suicide as the deadly bomb exploded inside of him in the aftermath of his guilt, "He was killed by the usual cabal: by himself, ...by the man who granted his inmost wish; and by the inevitable fifth, who was the keeper of his conscience and keeper of the stone."(272, Davies). Boy is found lifeless with a rock in his mouth, representing his inability to swallow this flood of guilt. Therefore, all characters who avoid their guilt succumb to their ultimate catastrophe, death.

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Conclusion

Overall, Claudius and Hamlet from Hamlet and Boy from Fifth Business demonstrate how the price of human life is compromised by one’s guilty conscious or unconscious. One's guilt caused by a fatal flaw, and brings about both heartless actions upon others and self-deterioration. Evidently, guilt can only be neglected for so long before it amplifies and strengthens to the point of no return.

Works Cited

  • Davies, Robertson. Fifth Business. Toronto: Penguin Canada, 1970. Print.Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. USA: Bantam Book, 1980. Print.

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Table of contentsAbstractDifferences in Fe(Male) AggressionDifferences in Fe(Mal ...

Table of contents

  1. Abstract
  2. Differences in Fe(Male) AggressionDifferences in Fe(Male) Aggression a standard thingAdolescence and Learning AggressionDifferences in Fe(Male) Aggression in a different way, either from crying or running to their parents
  3. Hormonal Influence on Aggression
  4. A Closer Look on Fe(Male) AggressionAre men more aggressive than women?

Abstract

The following read is a brief, detailed examination on gender aggression and what makes them different from one another. How men and women’s aggressive behavior differ because of how they understand aggression. It is seen as normal and common sense that men are much more aggressive than women. Many people may agree upon this statement but do they know why it’s seen as a normality? The paper compares gender aggression from their hormones, society and culture with studies and research examined by psychologists such as John Archer, James Dabbs, June Reinisch and many more that will help better understand as to how and why they aggress. This examination will point out the significance and impact of aggression upon both genders from adolescence to adulthood, different scenarios and public and cultural representations. There is just more than what meets the eye to the simple statement as “men are more aggressive than women”.

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Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression

Think about a scenario in which a male and a female is involved in a heated argument or a scene of violence. Who do you believe is the aggressor and who do you believe is more of a “victim”? Whether you believe it could a man or woman doesn’t really matter, because according to society men are more aggressive than women- It’s easier to picture a man as the aggressor than it is to see a woman as one. Reasons for this is mainly because of society’s interpretation that “men own aggression”.

In most countries, males were rated to be more aggressive than females. Men usually speak of the morality of aggression while as for women they seem to think of it as a concern. They believe acting upon it, signals defeat but to men it’s the total opposite. Psychologist John Archer found through a meta-analysis in measuring physical aggression upon genders that about 80% of boys rated by peers to be more physically aggressive than the average girl. Women and men have always had differences in physical aggressiveness, dominance and sexual activity levels for centuries and in different cultures but it’s always seen as

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression a standard thing

Is it a sexist issue or more on the means of nature itself? Understanding the human development of aggression is significant into understanding people around you and yourself. You can find causes of aggression from how they’re raised as adolescence, from their hormonal levels and society influence. You’ll probably reconsider why your partner, mother or sister is so sensitive or the reason for their short temper. You might even find the reason you’ve been looking for as to why your father or brother is always so tough on you and others. Who knows? We’ll see.

Adolescence and Learning Aggression

Let’s begin with the stage of adolescence between genders. Evidence had shown that women are not born calm and experience anger just about as often as men do. As infants, women react just as much from crying to screaming but for different reasons other than just needing another bottle of milk or a change of diapers. As children, aggression amounts not by age but by their

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression understanding whether they were a girl or a boy. This goes to show that when individuals master their gender identity, it will affect their future implications for their aggression. Although, sex differences in aggression tend to decrease with age, often occurring at the start of adulthood. A critical study suggested that when girls identify their gender they often suppress their own aggression, while as for boys they recognize it as a key component to being a man.

Sex differences in aggression appear early in human development frequently throughout cultures. Numerous psychologists confirmed that by the age of three, boys become physically aggressive such as wrestling, kicking, pushing and hitting way more than girls do. They tend to act aggressively and competitive for possession of toys, territory and manly recognition. Because of this, they’re twice as likely to pick on their own sex as on girls and are more criticized and restrained by teachers than girls are. Boys learn that aggression is effective in getting a reaction or attention. When aggression erupts, boys stimulate peer response by over 70%, which may possibly help their thrive for violent encounters. Girls in aggressive scenarios get attention too but

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression in a different way, either from crying or running to their parents

Psychologist Ageliki Nicolopoulou had proven that boys and girls differ from their fantasy aggression as well in her study that collected 500 stories made up from preschoolers. With no surprise, violent and aggressive themes were found in 87% of boys stories and 17% in girls stories. In a study including 102 children between the ages of four to seven, Psychologist William Hartup found that as children age, the more common a violent aggression can occur yet discovered the link between aggression and self respect. It was shown that boys put together better use of belligerent aggression than girls and use it to relate to their self-esteem.

Though both sexes seem to favor the connection between power and aggression, society teaches girls that to act upon it is a sign of failure or loss of control, while they teach it to boys as an issue of showing dominance. In many literature and entertainment, girls with aggression were mostly seen as villains and bullies, like in movies such as Mean Girls or the

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression villainesses in Disney movies like Ursula and Maleficent. Because of this and different cultural views on aggression, girls learn to respond to it with shame and not with calmness or bravado just like men feel. For some men, behaving in an aggressive manner rewards them an uplift of their self-worth and manliness. This is what makes aggression “feel good” to men, they feel as it is a prize. You can see these in many stereotypes, like the jocks that bully others in movies or the narcissistic hero.

Children learn appropriate behavior of aggression not only in what they see on tv and literature but also how parents raise them. Our reactions to aggression depends on what we learn. One study had children in a room full of gender-typed toys, letting them play with whatever they desired, with of course their parents supervision. When fathers witnessed their sons playing with feminine toys like dolls, they instantly took it away in exchange for a more “aggressive” boy-like toys such as trucks. Although, they could care less about their daughters playing with action figures and toy cars. Girls tend to be more sheltered and protected more than boys due to fear of sexual assault and abuse.

This proves that fathers prefer to teach their sons to be more aggressive and give less independence to their daughters. Anthropologist Carol Ember studied a small community in Kenya and decided to analyze the effects on gender-typed assignments to opposite genders. Ember found that boys who’ve done small amounts of feminine work seemed to be less aggressive than the average male and saw a drastic reduction on aggressive behavior by 60% from boys who’ve done larger amounts of feminine tasks. Through this study, Ember found the impact on development of aggression from something as simple as assigning roles to both genders.

Hormonal Influence on Aggression

The most no-brainer cause of aggression comes from hormones like testosterone, estrogen and progesterone levels. Psychologist June Reinisch concluded that the influence of hormones on later aggressive responses suggest the difference of aggressive behavior between genders, possibly relevant to natural variations in hormonal level prior from birth. High levels of testosterone is associated with aggression in both animals and

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression humans. In a study conducted by psychologist James Dabbs and his colleagues had examined of more than 700 male prisoners and found that the inmates with higher testosterone levels were much more likely to commit violent crimes, break prison rules and maintained a reputation of being tough and hostile than those with low testosterone level. Same results for their study of 171 female prisoners; High testosterone found in female inmates were more likely to be dominant. (Dabbs & Hargrove, 1997; Dabb et. al., 1988; Dabbs, Carr, Frady & Riad, 1995). In a United States government study of 4000 Vietnam veterans, analyses showed that veterans with high testosterone were more likely reported to be mischievous as children and considered to have higher rates of drug and alcohol use, large numbers of sexual partners yet participated more in active combat during the Vietnam war (Dabbs & Morris, 1990). Fraternity members with low testosterone were shown to be more civilized towards women, while the members of high testosterone were of course more impolite (Dabbs, Hargrove & Heusel, 1996). Men with high levels of testosterone are also less likely to get married, to be in unhappy marriages and/or divorce (Booth & Dabbs, 1993). They also tend to be less

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression successful in jobs due to being impetuous, impatient and aggressive. They tend to appear more intimidating and mean than those with low testosterone. When high testosterone individuals smile, it is seen to be less comforting and insincere because they smile without the use of their eyes (Dabbs, 1997; Cashdan, 1995). Dr. David Barasch explained that male hormones evolved as physiological messengers in which control their aggressiveness, evoking many ways of behavior such as dominance, criminal activity and many more. Dabbs stated:

High levels of testosterone evolved when the human race was young and people needed the skills of youth… also led them to take risks, fight, get injured and die young… High testosterone individuals are energetic but impatient, they do poorly in school and end up with fewer years of education… high levels, to my knowledge does not contribute to financial success.

What about the famous excuse of, “It’s that time of the month”? Medical establishments for years had translated female aggression by their hormones. Ever heard of the gold term, “PMS”? In the medical world, PMS is invoked to explain why women all of sudden burst out in anger. People negatively describes female hormones as a way of transforming a loving, caring partner into a worst nightmare. PMS was first explained by psychologist Robert

Frank as “indescribable tension”, a “irritability”, a way of relief by foolishness. Doctors believe that PMS is caused by cyclical imbalances in the body with possibilities including decreased estrogen, changes in progesterone, effects on prolactin, endometrial toxins and endorphin level changes.

A Closer Look on Fe(Male) Aggression

Instrumental theorist, James Tedeschi, argued that aggression is just coercive power, using threats or violence to gain obedience and have demands met. Aggression only counts to men when it causes someone to submit and show their superiority. Men see aggression as a challenge, yet, to be at the mercy of another, whether physical or not, is a sign of no respect and without it there’s no self-esteem. Men aggress to prove that they can earn respect. When their reputation is at risk or see a threat to their integrity and pride, they get angry and hostile. Many men seek aggression as a way to demonstrate dominance and who they are. Though, people argue that “real men” should be able to respond to challenge by retorting verbally or physically and usually see frequent confrontation as someone “trying too hard”.

Men’s self control is often called upon when they view their target as unacceptable, while as for women, their self control is due to the fact that aggression itself is intolerable. The point of most men’s aggressive behavior is not to signal emotional distress or to let off steam but to control behavior around them.

For women, to act upon violence, they’d need a great push. Their anger mostly is about social standing and not catharsis. Women tend to use indirect or relational aggression, meaning they use aggression more verbally like gossipping and spreading rumors about others which is more present in adolescence. The more furious women are, the longer it takes for them to get over it, though for men it’s the opposite. When women reach their “breaking point” in aggression, it looks a lot more different from men. The greatest difference between genders in response to anger is that women end up crying- greatest resource when discharging tension without an act of violence. Men judge crying to be childish and manipulative, possibly because when a woman ends up crying in an argument, it usually ends it from there. Psychologist Robert Averill have studied womens tears and found that 78% of women who cry in a conflict do so through feelings of

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression frustration. For most women, distress can linger for so long up until they can release it in tears.

When women gets to their high point of frustration, they are capable of acting out physically just as men can. Women tend to swallow their anger because most have self control, in which sometimes they’re taken advantage of. Women explode as a way to discharge in ways like throwing pans, repetitive punching, kicking, etc. Women who resort to fighting means that they’ve lost their self control to their anger. To society, when women’s explosions of physical violence are considered to be hysterical or plain crazy. Although some men find their women’s aggression “cute” and funny but some may find it threatening. What most people don’t understand is that women become frustrated because their aggression is misunderstood [by society]. When women cause episodes of aggression, they feel at loss of their appropriate role as a woman and feel no pride or heroism like men do. The more furious a woman is to the point she loses her inability to control her action, the more guilty she feel at the end. Some phrases may sound familiar in this case like “I feel horrible” or “I acted like such a b*tch” resulting in shame and regret. Many

Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression researchers can vouch and agree that women experience guilt after use of aggression more than men do. Majority of female aggression is generally directed or [by stress] caused by men, especially with whom they live with or have a relationship with. People who report to have the most anxiety about using aggression are surprisingly those who rarely aggress, which is especially true for females. Women who experience anxiety or shame about experiencing aggressive behavior don’t need “help” but support from others that allow them to vent without the feeling of being judged.

Are men more aggressive than women?

In most cases, yes, men can be more aggressive than women, physically and symbolically. But most people forget that women are capable of having the same amount of aggression as men do- They can be just as violent or ruthless. Men are just easily seen as aggressors because of how they handle certain situations, verbally and physically. When something ticks them off, they aggress almost right away. For women on the other hand takes

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Differences in Fe(Male) Aggression something big to take them off the edge. Women has more self control than men do in aggressive situations. Men usually appear as protectors, whether to their significant other, a friend or as simple as their pride. They stop at nothing to earn respect, dominance or to get what they want out of something. Though for both men and women, aggression [most times] is their last resort. Results vary depending on the process of an individual’s biological and environmental factors. Both can be just as verbally and physically as the other. All just depends on the situation they’re in, their hormonal levels and how they’re raised.


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Was Johnson’s foreign war in Vietnam doomed because of his domestic war on pov ...

Was Johnson’s foreign war in Vietnam doomed because of his domestic war on poverty?

There were many issues of Lyndon B Johnsons presidency term from 1963 to 1969 which played a significant role in dooming his foreign war in Vietnam. The Vietnam war which unofficially began in 1955 lasted until 1972 was deemed as Johnsons war due to his immediate focus and escalation of during his time as president. Johnson’s domestic war on poverty was not the only issue which doomed his war in Vietnam. Other issues which doomed his foreign war in Vietnam include his plans of a Great Society, civil rights, tactics, and escalation of the war itself. This essay shall investigate the extent of the issues which doomed the foreign war in Vietnam and determine which was most significant. This essay shall also discuss how the Vietnam war may have doomed some domestic policies during Johnson’s term as president.

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The war in Vietnam was the major foreign policy issue of Johnson’s term as president and most of the sixties. When he became president, Lyndon Johnson inherited a war in Vietnam with a fragile government which was already going badly. The main reason for Johnson’s war in Vietnam was due “largely to its symbolic status within the geo-strategic struggle to maintain the post-war liberal capitalists sphere” , The Vietnam war was part of the biggest conflict dividing the world after the Second World War, the Cold war or the struggle between the communist world led by Soviet Russia and the so-called “free” capitalist world dominated by the United States Upon becoming president, Johnson immediately had to focus on the Vietnam war. On the 24th November 1963, he said, “the battle against communism … must be joined … with strength and determination.” . Johnson, and his advisers, believed that the war in Vietnam would be short and successful. Johnson had no intentions to send American troops to fight and die in Asia. He and his advisers believed that America has the technology, money, and experience to win this war without significant causalities. The Administration did not have a real plan, years later, Johnson would admit that there was no “any plan for victory militarily or diplomatically.” . On April 7, 1965, at John Hopkins University, in a speech defined by some analysts as the most influential Johnson`s foreign policy speech, the future of the “limited war” in Vietnam was settled. On the surface, the speech is pledging for ‘unconditional negotiations,’ promising help for development and reconstruction of North Vietnam if the communists agree to compromise. This speech emphasises that talking about peace and negotiations cleared the way for further escalation. By 1968, the United States had 548,000 troops in Vietnam and had already lost 30,000 Americans there. Vietnam was necessary for him to show in the coming elections in 1964 that he is a tough person, resolved to build a Great American Society and simultaneously to manage the communist threat. The decision of committing United States ground forces into Vietnam ultimately doomed his presidency.

The initial need for military action is questioned by historians like Logevall who argue that American policy-makers had ready access to information which not only called into doubt the necessity of military escalation, but in addition indicated its likely futility. He questions, as a result, ‘not merely the practicality of the chosen course, but also the morality of it’ , emphasising that America knew of the consequences of escalating the Vietnam war however continued. One of Johnson’s main advisors for the Vietnam war was McNamara who admitted of a collective failure throughout the escalation process ‘to analyse our assumptions critically’ and speaks of an ignorance that was more than merely the routine but inescapable condition of all officers of state. Thus, emphasising the war was dooming due to a failure to analyse the situation clearly. Johnson understood the connections between the domestic and the foreign and sought to demonstrate to his audiences how economic well-being at home and abroad were interrelated. In Lyndon Johnson’s administration, the belief that a nation’s economic development and progress were intertwined with the nation’s stability and security bordered on sacred. However, by focusing heavily on both domestic and foreign policies ultimately drove both towards their doom.

The domestic war on poverty and the Great society was Johnson’s main goal within his domestic agenda. Johnson had plans for a Great Society which could have been the dooming factor of the Vietnam war. Johnson had more important domestic goal, to build the Great Society. Johnson metaphorically declared war on poverty in 1964, which set in motion an important period in the history of reform in United States, with it still affecting the American people decades later. Harrington states that there were “50,000,000 poor in this country” Johnson adopted the issue of poverty from Kennedy and under the tragic circumstances it gave Johnson a chance to establish his own authority, identity and constituency and show the nation that continuity was key after the assassination of Kennedy. Johnson believed that for social change to occur in the United States he reflected, “three conditions had to be met: a recognition of need, a willingness to act and someone to lead the effort” , as he felt the need, he lead the nation into the vision of the Great Society. Johnson committed himself unequivocally to passage of President Kennedy’s civil rights legislation. He believed this was only possible with improved coordination of existing federal programs and new efforts organized and carried out locally, with the government and people working together, America could win the war on poverty. Johnson forced through forty programs intended to eliminate poverty by improving living conditions and enabling people to lift themselves out of the cycle of poverty, programs including the Food Stamp Act of August 1964 and the Economic Opportunity Act of March 1964. His attention and determination to eliminate poverty could have doomed the Vietnam war before it begun. The war on poverty and all the programs cost a lot of money which would soon be forced to halt due to the Vietnam war. Beyond his anti-poverty program, Johnson also legislated for society to be improved, through better schools, better health, and better homes. He wanted to help Americans lift themselves out of the misery and unemployment. He had a vision of a Great Society, Johnson wanted to transform three sectors of America society, the “cities…countryside…classrooms” , by transforming these sectors he could expand on education and eradicate poverty. Johnson’s vision of a Great Society show that there was a turning point in American politics, from a foreign vision to more of a domestic one. Johnson also had a fear of social upheaval so wanted to keep the population happy. Johnson introduced sixty separate bills that provided for new and better-equipped classrooms, minority scholarships and low interest student loans. Guaranteed health care to every American over sixty-five through Medicare and Medicaid. He introduced measures to reclaim the heritage of clear air and water and even created measures with the philosophy that artists, performers, and writers were an important part of American heritage and deserved support. Johnson managed to provide America with policies and programs to help create his Great Society. However, his Great Society may have doomed the Vietnam war as Johnson was more devoted to his domestic policies rather than his foreign policy. Carl Brauer argues that “Poverty was the right issue for the right man at the right time” , and that the Vietnam war was not his priority or core issue as a president. The domestic issue on poverty and Johnsons attention to detail in legislating it was the downfall in the failure of the Vietnam war. Johnson, of course, did not remain president for long. He pushed through most of his Great Society reforms in his first two years in office, when he had large Democratic majorities in Congress. By 1968, the war in Vietnam had led to considerable criticism of the president’s record and a major drop in his popularity, and Johnson decided not to run for re-election. Johnson was initially cautious of the Vietnam war due to his fear of that it might “distract domestic attention from Great Society reforms” , he believed the Vietnam war would be a trap that would frustrate his domestic policies. His known fear and caution of the Vietnam war shows it may have been doomed before it even begun and his domestic policies were priorities. The domestic war on poverty was an important issue for Johnson and one he gave much of his attention to, which makes it a factor as of why his war in Vietnam was a failure.

Many historians argue the Vietnam war to have been the dooming factor of Johnson’s vision of a Great Society. Nobody expected that Vietnam would kill the Great Society. As Johnson struggled to articulate a message of peace and prosperity, the growing rhythm of war drums threatened his ambitious domestic reforms. The resulting expenses from the escalation of the Vietnam war was a major cause of the failure of Johnson’s vision of a Great Society. Lyndon Johnson was fearful of a conservative backlash, which he felt would doom his Great Society, he became an unsure and troubled leader grappling with the unwanted burden of Vietnam. A Johnson administration perceived as not allocating sufficient resources to defeat communism in Vietnam would provide opponents of the Great Society the perfect argument against proceeding with costly social and economic reforms at home. As Johnson struggled to articulate a message of peace and prosperity, the growing rhythm of war drums threatened his ambitious domestic reforms. As Irving Bernstein writes in his probing study of the era, “One may speculate over what might have been if the country had remained at peace. Economic policy was working superbly in 1965 and it is likely that prosperity would have continued into 1968” emphasising what might have been for American poverty and prosperity if they weren’t involved in the Vietnam war. As president, however, Johnson did exactly that: committing U.S. ground forces to Vietnam in 1965. This decision ultimately doomed his presidency and the Great Society. Johnson’s deepest fears were “that revealing the wars full costs spelled doom for his great society” , he perceived his dilemma acutely. On the one hand, he recognized the dangers a larger war posed to the Great Society. On the other hand, he judged a lost war ruinous to his political standing and legislative effectiveness’ , Johnson didn’t want to be involved in the war and was more a domestic president, his fears were made reality when it was seen as no longer achievable and his vision of a Great Society died.

Other problems within the United States also dealt a major blow to the war in Vietnam being doomed. The battle of Civil rights was a major issue throughout the sixties. Lyndon Johnson has been credited for being one of the most important figures in the Civil Rights movement. Johnson fought on several fronts for African Americans to became equal in the United States. Many believe that Johnson launched the War on Poverty in order to attract a high percentage of black votes in the 1964 election. Johnson believed that the nations “racial problems were essentially economic in nature” and was determined to help sort the issue. The war on poverty and civil rights are quietly linked and show that the problems and home were a dooming factor in the war in Vietnam. The biggest act of the civil rights movement in American history was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which became one of the main priorities for Johnson, continuing Kennedy’s civil rights policy. The Civil Rights Act ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, colour, religion, sex or national origin, is considered one of the crowning legislative achievements of the civil rights movement. Acts like this show the importance of Johnson’s domestic policies which would have doomed his war in Vietnam. By the summer of 1964, the civil rights act was the “focus of Johnson’s political life” , this exemplifying the domestic policy Johnson had and the lack of focus on his war in Vietnam could have doomed it. With Johnson’s political life now fully focused on the civil rights act, Johnson also saw “civil rights reform as essential to the well-being of the nation” , Johnson was fearful of upheaval of his own people so saw this as a excellent opportunity to piece together no only the separated blacks and whites but also the south from the rest of America. However, the many civil right groups did protest against the Vietnam War. In a speech in April 1967, Martin Luther King stated the War was the “Greatest purveyor of violence in the world today” , In January 1966, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) “formally opposed the war, and they were soon followed by the Congress of Racial Equality” (CORE), with also superstars like Muhammad Ali and militant groups like the Black Panthers against it. As the cost of the war diminished the great society and the war on poverty Johnson had to see how he continue his civil rights policies. After the riots of the summer of 1966, he saw it sill as an important issue which would have doomed the Vietnam war. The civil rights movement and Johnsons attention to it have had many argue that he was one of the key figures in the movement, this shows how with the problems with civil rights at home, his war in Vietnam was always on the path of being a failure.

The young people of America were also a domestic issue which doomed the Vietnam war. Problems with student protests began before the Johnson era and would continue during his term. In Port Huron statement of the students for a democratic society in 1962, problems to students are introduced as their comfort has been penetrated by the events of the “struggle against racial bigotry and enclosing fact of the cold war” , these problems for the students create the problem of student protests at home and the domestic policy must continue to come before his war in Vietnam. The Quantum of suffering endured by the Vietnamese was of far greater moment to the college-based anti-war movement than it was to the public at large. Explaining why Students were “heavily involved in the early protests against the war” . Student protests against his domestic war on poverty and his war in Vietnam would have hurt Johnson and had a dooming effect on the war in Vietnam. As Johnson’s term went on, support for his agenda of domestic reforms was eroding as fiscal conservatives in both parties decried the growing cost of making America a Great Society and inner city black youth lashed at symbols of white authority and control. The protests at home mainly by the students had a dooming impact upon Johnson’s war in Vietnam.

The tactics of the war in Vietnam was a further reason Johnsons War in Vietnam was doomed. Lyndon Johnson and his advisors decided to escalate the war in hope of an ending. For Johnson, the decision to continue the war in Vietnam followed the path of his predecessors. When Johnson took office, he affirmed the Kennedy administration’s commitments. The tactics of the war in Vietnam were headed by Johnson’s advisors. On the 13th February 1965, Johnson authorized Rolling Thunder, the sustained bombing of North Vietnam. On March 8th, 1965, two Marine battalions, 3,500 troops, went ashore near Da Nang to protect the airfields, with orders to shoot only if shot at. This was the first-time United States combat forces had been sent to mainland Asia since the Korean War. On April 3th, Johnson authorized two additional Marine battalions, one Marine air squadron, and an increase in logistical support units of 20,000 men. The “United States air force would be dropping bombs at a rate unequalled in history” . He also authorized troops to go on active search and destroy missions. By mid-April, Marines had moved to full-scale offensive operations. By November 1965, there were 175,000 troops and by 1966, an additional 100,000. The number would surge to 535,000 by the end of Johnson’s presidency. Oliver believes that the American decision to escalate its military commitment was made for reasons that were radically untethered from the historical conditions which actually obtained in south-east Asia had implications for much of the rest of the war’s moral history. The tactics of the war in Vietnam were that of an violent nature, “Johnson agreed to follow a more aggressive policy” towards the Vietnam war and create a tactic which would bind pressure upon the Vietnamese. The heavy bombing tactic by the United States forces was intended to destroy the will of the ordinary Vietnamese to resist, as like the bombings during the Second World War did to the Germans and Japanese. However, this never occurred. The Vietnam leaders were ready for a war and would have stood strong for twenty years and more. President Johnson wanted to resolve the crisis in Vietnam however ended by as a president who couldn’t end the war. This created a fog of uncertainty around his term and the outcome of his war in Vietnam. The tactics of the war in Vietnam were of such a violent and aggressive manner and not investigated enough that thousands of American troops needlessly died and support for Lyndon Johnson as president suffered. The tactics of the war not only doomed his war in Vietnam but also his term as president.

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In conclusion, Lyndon Johnson’s War in Vietnam was not only doomed because of his domestic war on poverty but also due to problems within the United States at the time of his escalation in Vietnam and the tactics of the war itself. The story of Vietnam War as a tragedy. A tragedy for an ambitious president that could be remembered with his contribution in development of civil rights; a tragedy for a nation that was struggling to balance its ideals with its realities, and a tragedy for another, a smaller nation, that passed through the hell of the war suffering enormous casualties for nothing. The war in Vietnam was won with a decisive victory for the North Vietnamese, with it costing countless American lives and Johnson’s presidency. Johnson’s domestic war on poverty was a very important issue to him and an issue he put a lot of his time on. The domestic war on policy was a major factor on why his war in Vietnam was doomed however not the only issue. Issues at home including civil rights and protests from students also doomed his war in Vietnam as well as the tactics of the Vietnam war. The many issues of Johnson’s term seemed to doom his war in Vietnam and his presidency.

Works Cited

  1. Brauer, C. A. (2002). Poverty and progress: A second look at Johnson's great society. University of Texas Press.
  2. Dallek, R. (2004). Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a president. Oxford University Press.
  3. Harrington, M. (2016). The other America: Poverty in the United States. Simon and Schuster.
  4. Logevall, F. (2012). Choosing war: The lost chance for peace and the escalation of war in Vietnam. University of California Press.
  5. Mann, R. A. (2001). A grand delusion: America's desperate attempt to construct a national identity in Vietnam. Basic Books.
  6. Marwick, A. (2001). The sixties: Cultural revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States, c.1958-c.1974. Oxford University Press.
  7. McAllister, J. T. (2013). Vietnam in American literature: The war in the words of writers and their witnesses. Routledge.
  8. Schulzinger, R. D. (2014). A time for war: The United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975. Oxford University Press.
  9. Turner, K. R. (2013). Lyndon Johnson's dual war: Vietnam and the press. University Press of Mississippi.
  10. Woods, R. H. (2016). Vietnam: A global history. Bloomsbury Publishing.

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Heart of Darkness has long been considered a triumph of 20th century English-lan ...

Heart of Darkness has long been considered a triumph of 20th century English-language literature and its exploration of the darkness inside man has long provoked analysis by critics. But renowned Nigerian author and preeminent scholar on African culture, Chinua Achebe, has a markedly different view. In a 1975 lecture, he denounced Heart of Darkness as an example of pervasive racism, dismissal of African culture, and European arrogance and ignorance. He argued that if it was to be taught, it should be used only as an example of the horrifically backwards views of Joseph Conrad and of the period it was written in. His lecture and subsequent essay sparked a scholarly uproar with many strongly denouncing Achebe’s views and arguing that while racist, Heart of Darkness was far ahead of its time and indeed sought to highlight European abuses of power in Africa. Hunt Hawkins is among these scholars and his counter-argument to Achebe represents the far more relativist view of many critics and seeks to place Conrad’s novel and its views in the context of its era and its author’s life.

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Achebe’s critique focuses on the depiction of Africans in Conrad’s novel. Their depiction is effectively that of sub-humans. As he points out, no African character is given a name and only one is described in any detail. They are viewed as beyond savage, beyond primitive and as not entirely human. Achebe emphasizes Conrad’s use of racial slurs, his belaboring of the darkness of the Africans, and their seeming lack of humanity. This is important, Achebe argues, because this is often the only depiction of Africans that students will experience before college and thus is key to shaping their early opinions on the subject. Achebe holds this book and the image it perpetuates as responsible for the view that Africa has no culture worth studying. He readily admits that Conrad is “one of the great stylists of modern fiction,” but Achebe asserts that this only adds to its danger. Heart of Darkness’s permanence and writing-quality is what makes it among the most ubiquitous novels of high school curricula and this gives it a platform from which to disseminate its view of Africa as “the other world.” In Achebe’s view, Conrad does not present Africa or the Congo as a nation or a people, nor does he present its inhabitants as fully human—they are merely a nameless and faceless backdrop for the Europeans in the story. This is not merely a representation of the prevailing views of the time in Achebe’s mind, but a reflection of Conrad’s own views and his own deep animosity and ignorance towards the people of Africa.

Hunt Hawkins presents a radically different view in his own counter=point to Achebe’s essay. He concedes that Heart of Darkness is in itself racist and does not attempt to deny that Africans are dehumanized in the story. But Hawkins argues first and foremost that the tribes being described by Conrad are not the well-established and relatively stable Ibo of Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart, but are chaotic, warring tribes torn apart by European diseases, slave-trading and occupation. Unlike the Ibo in Things Fall Apart, these are a people devastated by colonialism, not encountering its first hints. Thus, Hawkins argues that Conrad may have gathered a far darker picture of African society from his experiences in the Congo than he would have had he stayed in another part of Africa far from the brutal occupation and exploitation of the Belgian colonizers. Perhaps, Hawkins concludes, Conrad may have been actually describing truthfully the things he saw them on his visit.

But Hawkins primary point is that Conrad, however racist he many have been, was ahead of his time. He notes that Conrad was an intense opponent of imperialism in all forms and particularly criticized the hypocrisy of its “civilizing mission” which Heart of Darkness presents as morally corrupt and deluded. The Europeans in this story are hardly superior. In fact, they are generally abusive towards the natives, violent, condescending and corrupt. They are clearly using the Congo and its people purely for profit and justifying this through the flimsy rationale of the White Man’s Burden and social Darwinism. At one point both Achebe and Hawkins agree that Africans are a mere backdrop in the story while the Europeans and their demons are the dominant storyline. But Achebe interprets this as a negative while Hawkins seems to think it a positive. He argues that them being a backdrop is relevant in that Conrad does not intend to portray them as negative characters because he does not intend to portray them as characters at all while Achebe would argue that that is precisely the problem. Africans are indeed a backdrop to the story. But in Achebe’s mind this is a message to students about what Africa is. It is a message that Africa is not worth a named character, that it is merely a backdrop for the Europeans without a distinct identity of its own.

Edward Said seems to take the most moderate position. He views Conrad as beholden to the European morals of his time and unable to see any alternative to the evils of imperialism. Yet he does point out these evils and does recognize the hypocrisy and brutality of colonization, even if he sees no end in sight and does not wish for one. He concludes that Conrad is surely racist, but he cannot be viewed in a truly negative light since he was nonetheless far beyond his time in his criticism of the ideals and practice of imperialism. Conrad’s point is to introduce a grey area between the civilized and uncivilized—noting that even though the Africans may be uncivilized, the Europeans are as well. Said seems unsure whether Conrad wishes Africa to be free (even if he could not imagine what that would look like) or whether he truly believes in the ideals of imperialism.

Heart of Darkness is a classic novel, ubiquitous in high school and college curricula, and its author is a great craftsman of fiction and prose – yet it is unarguably racist. It was written in a time of imperialism, colonialism, racism and the self-justifying rationale of the white man’s burden. Chinua Achebe, the acclaimed author of the first great work of modern African fiction, argues that this is enough to cease teaching the book purely as literature. Instead he proposes that the book be taught only in the context of its racism and only as an example of the attitudes of the time. But other writers of the time, including Hunt Hawkins, argue that Conrad cannot be judged too harshly for his views. They are a reflection of the time and in the context of this time period Conrad was a revolutionary. His books may present Africans as savages, but it presents imperialism as equally so. Imperialism in Conrad is hubris—a failed idea filled with high-minded European ideals that collapse under the weight of human nature. Conrad’s weakness was that he was a man of his time and thus could not imagine another path. He could not imagine a world without imperialism despite its evils. But even if we recognize that Conrad was beholden to the ideals of his time, racism is racism. To teach Heart of Darkness without focusing on this element of it is to ignore the most dominant theme in the novel and the lasting impact it has had on generations of readers.


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Ludwig van Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9 in D Minor Op. 125 is a symphony unlike ...

Ludwig van Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9 in D Minor Op. 125 is a symphony unlike any other. This piece of music explores innovations in a vast array of characteristics and style techniques which brings universal appeal among audiences everywhere. Beethoven, who wrote this Symphony from 1822-1824, envisioned music set to the poem ‘Ode to Joy’ by Friedrich Schiller. Beethoven used the text from this poem as a textual foundation for the magnificent finale as the poem displays themes and ideals similar to themes of the enlightenment period which was prevalent during the American and French revolutions. Characteristics to which Beethoven exemplified in his Choral Symphony is the idea of equal opportunity for all people, cooperation amongst all individuals, and to enjoy freedom and all that being free has to offer. The premiere of this Symphony not only received tremendous success and applause from the attending audience, but has inspired composers such as Schubert, Brahms, and Mahler to continue this proclamation of expression and emotional purpose in musical literature.

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A prominent innovation to which Beethoven used in the composition of this Symphony would definitely be the change in the size of the orchestra. The large scale to which this Symphony was composed not only created a more robust sound, but also created more complexity in structure and instrumentation as well. The instrumentation calls for piccolo (4th mvt. only), two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets in A, Bb, and C, two bassoons, contrabassoon (4th mvt. only), horns 1 and 2 in D and Bb, horns 3 and 4 in Bb basso, Bb, and Eb, two Trumpets in D and Bb, alto, tenor, and bass trombone (only used in 2nd and 4th mvts.), timpani, bass drum (4th mvt.), triangle (4th mvt.), cymbals (4th mvt.), SATB choir with soprano, alto, tenor, and bass solos (only used in 4th mvt.), and strings.

The first movement of the Symphony is in a sonata form, however excluding the repeat of the exposition. The movement begins in D minor and is marked Allegro ma non troppo, un poco maestoso. The first notes played represent an orchestra tuning as they are played in a succession of open fifths. The second movement is a scherzo and trio and is marked molto vivace. This is unusual as most symphonies place an Andante as the second movement and save the scherzo for the third movement. The scherzo takes place in D minor and is categorized as being a complete sonata form while also adhering to the form of a compound ternary structure. The third movement is marked Adagio molto e cantabile, is in Bb major, and is in a double variation form. The first variation occurs in 4/4 time whereas the second variation occurs in 12/8 time with 3/4 time passages separating the two variations. The fourth movement begins with the marking Presto and uses thematic material which was present in the previous three movements before the first theme of ‘Ode to Joy’ is played by the cellos and double basses. Variations on this theme are played throughout the orchestra which leads to a proclamation from the baritone soloist of the first lines of the poem which translated are “Oh friends, not these sounds! Let us instead strike up more pleasing and more joyful ones!” This movement ends in a joyful D major and is longer than most classical symphonies preceding this piece of music.

This Symphony has shaped and influenced how the Romantic period was to be structured and implemented throughout the middle 19th century onward as several composers paid homage to themes and techniques used in the Ninth Symphony in works such as Brahms Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Bruckner’s Symphony No. 3 in D minor, and Dvorak’s Symphony No. 9 ‘From the New World.’ This reverence to the Ninth Symphony has brought huge success and recognition from audiences all over the world since the premiere of the piece. Although at first the fourth movement received criticism due to the controversy of adding a choir to the movement, the piece has overcome this controversy and is used as a form of end of year celebration piece in places such as Japan and Germany. This further solidifies the notion of the universal appeal associated with this piece as two completely different countries use this Symphony to bring forth a new year, a celebration of freedom, and opportunity for anyone who wishes to attain it.


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Intro to PhilosophyHume Paper-How does Hume’s bundle theory of self affect his ...

Intro to Philosophy

Hume Paper-How does Hume’s bundle theory of self affect his reasoning regarding personal identity and morality?

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Scottish philosopher David Hume stands out in history for his skepticism and devotion to his reasoning, along with his well known disputes of many of his predecessor’s metaphysical speculations. Hume was a self-identified skeptic, a man who always sought concrete evidence. This passion for truth led many to believe he was an atheist, even though he was a firm agnostic. Hume is most well known for his bundle theory of self, a philosophy that insists “the self is only a bundle of impressions and that identity is a mental act, not a property of things.” In short, he believed that we are who we are because we see ourselves as such, not because we actually are. This rigid belief system caused him to have different views on personal identity and morality than other philosophers of his time such as Locke and Berkeley.

Hume believed that personal immortality was a meaningless concept. He argued that you cannot have a persisting self if every time we view ourselves, our perceptions are different. His argument applied to the after life by way that “any change in a thing (such as bodily death) changes its identity.” His bundle theory of self caused Hume to believe that there really was no “self”, simply a collection of perceptions. This caused him to mentally reduce people down to only a list of simple characteristics that were perceptions and perhaps ideas. and he truly believed that we have no persistent self, only a mental laziness that lets us ignore the truth of things. His stance on morals was similar to that of immortality: strictly fact based. He petitioned for the reformation of moral philosophy, rejecting abstract science and pushing for the experimental method to be applied to ethics.

In Hume’s bundle theory of self, we are guided to view our thoughts and perceptions as selves, beings who exist over time and do not change on a day to day basis. Regardless of how we spin our observations, we can never record anything beyond feelings, sensations or impressions, and that is what Hume insists the self is made of. His theory caused him to view personal identity and morality as matter beyond direct control, seeing as we are not actually anything other than a bundle of thoughts and feelings.

Works Cited

  1. Hume, D. (1739). A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford University Press.
  2. Allison, H. E. (2008). Hume's theory of personal identity. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/hume-identity/
  3. Garrett, D. (2015). Personal identity and self as narrative: Theoretical and therapeutic dimensions. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 28(4), 323-336. doi:10.1080/10720537.2014.977168
  4. Harris, H. A. (2013). Hume on the identity of persons. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 51(4), 605-633. doi:10.1353/hph.2013.0063
  5. Jenkins, J. J. (2010). Hume, personal identity, and the bundle theory. European Journal of Philosophy, 18(3), 366-387. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0378.2008.00316.x
  6. Lodge, P. (2017). Hume's bundle theory of self and the cognitive science of mindfulness. Ratio, 30(4), 403-420. doi:10.1111/rati.12153
  7. Noonan, H. W. (2003). Personal identity and the bundle theory. Analysis, 63(1), 27-32. doi:10.1093/analys/63.1.27
  8. Owen, D. (2019). Hume's bundle theory of the self: A limited defense. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 57(3), 491-514. doi:10.1353/hph.2019.0044
  9. Penelhum, T. (2003). Hume on personal identity. The Philosophical Review, 112(3), 323-358. doi:10.1215/00318108-112-3-323
  10. Star, D. (2009). Hume and the enigma of personal identity. International Philosophical Quarterly, 49(2), 177-190. doi:10.5840/ipq200949214

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“There are still the poor, the defeated, the criminal, the desperate, all hang ...

“There are still the poor, the defeated, the criminal, the desperate, all hanging in there with what must seem a terrible vitality.” Thomas Pynchon, “A Journey into the Mind of Watts” The challenge posed to any reader of “serious” literature is ultimately one of observation, understanding, and synthesis. He regards a work as a collection of intricate components, each of which he must examine thoroughly, measuring one against another, alternately holding them up to the focused light of his mind, until finally he is able to say with certainty that he understands the work as a body of unified parts. As a work of near impenetrability, The Crying of Lot 49 is all but immune to this kind of analytical comprehension. It is a work founded entirely on uncertainty, and therefore concerns itself with both everything and nothing; it either sojourns into a deeply rooted conspiracy centuries of years in the making or simply catalogues the mental disarray of a woman attempting to execute a will.

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To trace the parabolic arc of its plot is to become fully disoriented by the maniacal whims of Nazi therapists, by names such as Mike Fallopian that resist even the most apt psychoanalysis, and by the ultimate unreliability of a harrowed protagonist. Throughout the novel, reality clashes inexorably with the surreal, providing seemingly infinite points of ingress that by their very abundance contribute to the novel’s hermetic nature. Yet despite these complexities of form and substance, the work has perhaps paradoxically attracted the exact type of literary reading that it appears to resist. Scholarly articles ranging from discussions on the prevalence of metaphorical and literal entropy in The Crying of Lot 49 (Dodge) to detailed cartographies of the labyrinthine progression of the novel (Gleason) continually adorn the firmaments of academia. This is to say, The Crying of Lot 49 has spurred an intellectual devotion to its enigmatic elements, while the tangible and perhaps more immediate issues of the novel remain relatively undisturbed; the plain has become engulfed and diminished by the remarkable.

The problem of race and culture within the novel, particularly the subjugation of a loosely defined underclass, is one such element that has been woefully unrealized. The strict racial and cultural divisions, and the tensions arising therein, found in Pynchon’s novel represent a vital yet often overlooked method of unlocking both the author’s social position and the underlying motivations and intentions that shape The Crying of Lot 49. With the exception of Steven Weisenburger’s brief essay “Reading Race” (which attempts little more than a classroom guide to the text), the treatment of race within the novel, as both a poignant social commentary and a mechanism by which to understand the work, has historically received little attention. Weisenburger suggests that the presence of race within the novel is mostly ignored because “the story’s all about white folks…isn’t it?” (52). While the novel partially desensitizes a racial understanding through its nearly exclusive use of white characters, the true desensitization of race occurs by means of its apparently nonexistent remarkability amidst a sea of plot convolutions and eccentric unconventionalities.

Readers lowering themselves tentatively into the Pynchonian rabbit-hole of Lot 49 will notice immediately the playful puns that beckon and wink from every page, or perhaps the liberal nomenclature that positively begs for Freudian interpretation; the allure of these literary devices coaxes most readers away from the comparatively dull issue of cultural divide. Yet in the same year that his novel was published, Pynchon was composing “A Journey Into the Mind of Watts”, a surprisingly visceral essay that grapples with the racial turmoil festering in the Los Angeles neighborhood. While the accompaniment of Lot 49 by a comparatively solemn work of social commentary does not altogether resolve the immortal question of the novel’s true meaning, it does lend a considerable amount of credibility to a racial understanding of the text. Thus, an alternate reading of the novel, one that relies both on textual and contextual interpretations and the cultural forces exerting pressure on Pynchon at the time of his authorship is required.

This argument ultimately frames Oedipa as the inheritor of the knowledge that a colonized subclass exists, subjugated and dehumanized by the bourgeoisie society that she has, far so long, willingly placed herself. Oedipa’s journey, and ours, begins with Pierce Inverarity, the perfect manifestation of the white upper class, the spectral figure that Jes's Arrabal describes as “another world’s intrusion into this one” (97). Inverarity is the unmoved mover, the tipper of the primordial domino that sets Oedipa in motion. Inverarity as the enterprising capitalist and Arrabal as the suppressed radical syndicalist are indeed representatives of mutually excusive “worlds”, and the collision of these worlds, this “kiss of cosmic pool balls”, precipitates a real and tangible racial, if not cultural, conflict. These worlds are initially defined and separated by Inverarity’s characterization as a colonizing force. As Metzger and Oedipa fall deeper and deeper into a tequila-soaked revelry, she asks the question, “What the hell didn’t he (Inverarity) own?” To which Metzger cryptically responds, “You tell me” (25). The breadth of Inverarity’s monetary influence over his surroundings is indicative of a colonial force not only by its formation of a natural socio-economic hierarchy but also by the nature of those under its subjugating power. The Turkish bath, the Yoyodyne employees bound to various extremist political ideals, the Beaconsfield cigarette filters that may or may not have been wrought from the bones of slain soldiers; each of Inverarity’s financial interests seem to maintain some linkage to the foreign, the ostracized, the dispossessed. Shifting from the fictionalized to the actual world of Pynchon, we see in his essay on Watts a similar notion of colonial oppression contingent on white monetary supremacy: “While the white culture is concerned with various forms of systematized folly--the economy of the area in fact depending on it--the black culture is stuck pretty much with basic realities like disease, like failure, violence and death, which the whites have mostly chosen--and can afford--to ignore.” Inverarity as a fictionalized metaphor for this type of colonial oppression corroborates the Pynchonian class distinction and provides further insight into the author’s social observations and obligations. Commenting on the subversive racial alterity, Pynchon observes, “the two cultures do not understand each other” (Watts). While the cultures Pynchon refers to be those of the white and the black, the sentiment broadened to represent the cultures of privilege and poverty is equally effective (Pynchon refers to this latter culture as “disinherited” in his novel). In either case, Pynchon posits that this cultural disease is merely a symptom of an inability to communicate, to reach a mutual understanding.

Furthermore, Pynchon’s diagnosis appears to fault the upper class citizens for a sort of failed reticence, or a refusal to acknowledge the widening gap between the two cultures: “Somehow it occurs to very few of them (the elite) to leave at the Imperial Highway exit for a change, go east instead of west only a few blocks, and take a look at Watts. A quick look. The simplest kind of beginning. But Watts is a country which lies, psychologically, uncounted miles further than most whites seem at present willing to travel (Watts)”. The problem outlined here by Pynchon is not one of practical or social inability, but rather one of cultural apathy: the privileged class is simply not interested in recognizing the plight of the disenfranchised. The resultant impossibility of communication is mirrored perfectly in various sequences of the novel. The constant stream of information required to enable Maxwell’s Demon is nonexistent (77); the letter given to Oedipa by the drug-addicted sailor will never reach his distant wife (98); the symbol of the subjugated class’s reclusion itself, the post-horn, is interminably muted. Yet the impossibility of cultural transversal that Pynchon laments in his essay is realized in his literature in the form of Oedipa; her frenzied migration from Tupperware-toting housewife to subculture journeywoman is the author’s fictionalized attempt to diagram the consequences of a cultural overlap. Probably the most pertinent section of The Crying of Lot 49 in regards to Oedipa’s realization of the disinherited class is her foray into the San Francisco slums. Weisenburger is bold enough to read this passage as the novel’s ultimate climax, saying, “For there is where she witnesses the crime of disinheritance, of alienating oppression” (55). Her devolution into the Californian underworld is especially telling because it reveals Pynchon’s expectations of the results of a privileged class member (drawing once again this passage from his essay) going a few miles outside of her comfort zone to take a quick look at the lot of the disinherited. Oedipa’s “quick look” at the colonized members of Californian society produces in her a startling realization, the type of “cataclysmic shock” (97) that Jes's Arrabal describes for her in his Mexican restaurant. Her realization of her favorable position in the newly discovered social hierarchy is inherently racial; she notes her relation to Chinatown, to the “greasy Mexican spoons”, to the Negro-filled bus rides. All of this coincides with her reluctant discovery that “the city was hers, as, made up and sleeked so with the customary words and images (cosmopolitan, culture, cable cars) it had not been before” (96). Pealing back the usual d'cor of the city’s cosmopolitan glamor to reveal a shriveled underclass, Oedipa realizes her apparent ownership of her surroundings due to her place of upper-middle class prestige in the American class system. If her distress during these few frantic pages is one of conscience, of realizing her role in the subjugation of millions of American misfits, then the emphasis of her discovery is not on the possible existence of an underground postal system, but rather on those marginalized souls whose social position requires them to utilize it.

Pynchon’s portrayal of Oedipa is not an apathetic one. In fact, her desire for cultural reconciliation is explicitly detailed, in particular, by her interaction with the elderly sailor: “What voices overhear, flinders of luminescent gods glimpsed among the wallpaper’s stained foliage, candlestubs lit to rotate in the air over him…thus to end among the flaming, secret salts held all those years by the insatiable stuffing of a mattress that could keep vestiges of every nightmare sweat, helpless overflowing bladder, viciously, tearfully consummated wet dream, like the memory bank to a computer of the lost? She was overcome all at once by a need to touch him…as if she would not remember him without it” (125). The poeticized form of this passage, overladen with overtly sensitive rather than the usual technical language, conveys the depth of Oedipa’s human connection with the disinherited class. Furthermore, her longing for physical contact demonstrates her psychological need to remember what she has discovered. The brief connection forged between the opposing classes, between the colonizers and the colonized, is held aloft by Oedipa in this moment. Yet the intense emotional connection felt by Oedipa is ultimately incapable of producing true social progress, as Pynchon renders his heroine helpless to revert the established social structure. The passivity of Oedipa in the scenes following her San Francisco sojourn suggest the impossibility of class reformation in the eyes of Pynchon. In the course of her investigatory duties, she comes in contact with Winthrop Tremaine, a devout racist who profits from the sale of swastika armbands manufactured by underpaid black laborers. Upon learning of the business practices of Tremaine, Oedipa retrospectively decides, “she should’ve called him something, or tried to hit him with any dozen heavy blunt objects in easy reach…You’re a chicken. This is America, you live in it, you let it happen” (149). The resultant tension between the inertia of Oedipa’s empathic desires and the gravity of the established order seems to preclude all forms of social progress and suggests an inherent complicity with the opposed, hierarchal nature of the two classes. Much like Watts, the subjugated lower class that Oedipa is desperate to aid exists both as a neglected physical entity and as a psychological state of permanence, one with which the privileged are unable to connect. Placing matters back into the context of racial forms, Pynchon’s statement about the immobility of Watts is particularly relevant: “Watts lies impacted in the heart of this white fantasy. It is, by contrast, a pocket of bitter reality. The only illusion Watts ever allowed itself was to believe for a long time in the white version of what a Negro was supposed to be” (Watts).

Relating this concept to the text, the “white fantasy” may be seen as the continued colonization of the disinherited underclass: the drug-addicted sailors, the members of Inamorati Anonymous, the night watchman nibbling at a bar of Ivory Soap. These men and women are eternally connected by their shared inhabitance of the “pocket of bitter reality” and, of course, by the Tristero. In his essay, Pynchon comments on the total lack of communication between the two socially opposed classes, ascribing the widening gap between them as a symptom of this communicative void. The Crying of Lot 49, by contrast, is permeated by the recurring theme of communication. Among the swirl of radio disc jockeys and entropic mediums, the myth of the Tristero emerges as the most thematically dominant form of communication within the text, as well as the main symbolic emblem of the underclass. A cursory reading of the novel might reveal the Tristero mail system as the last refuge of the disinherited, their sole source of empowerment against the colonizing force of the upper class. A support of such an argument may be found in Oedipa’s internal observation of the post-horn’s clandestine universality: “For here were God knew how many citizens, deliberately choosing not to communicate by U.S. Mail…it was a calculated withdrawl, from the life of the Republic, from its machinery. Whatever else was being denied them out of hate, indifference to the power of their vote…the withdrawal was their own…Since they could not have withdrawn into a vacuum (could they?), there had to exist the separate, silent, unsuspected world” (123). This sort of classification appears to lend these forgotten citizens at least a degree of autonomy; that they have consciously withdrawn from the “Republic” is at the very least commendable as an act of coordinated and deliberate noncompliance.

Yet further inspection negates the apparent sovereignty of such an act. Pynchon, in his essay, clearly states that the causal force of social paralysis is the two classes’ ongoing existence within mutually exclusive spheres of communication; the whites (privileged) communicate with the whites, the blacks (disinherited) with the blacks. How then, if class unity is the ultimate objective, is the Tristero system beneficial to the plight of the dispossessed? Weisenburger’s contention is something similar, stating that, “the message system works concertedly with oppression, because any minority population’s withdrawal from the life of the Republic would be tailor-made for a segregationist and colonialist regime of power” (57). The Tristero, then, is not a vehicle of empowerment for these citizens, but rather it functions as a vital cog in the colonialist machine. It is a weapon wielded by the colonizing upper class, of which the colonized are well aware; on the Negro bus, a terrified messenger has scribbled, under the anagram D.E.A.T.H., “Don’t Ever Antagonize The Horn” (122). The realization that the true benefactors of the Tristero are those who wish to preserve the status quo is crucial to a racial reading of the text, as well as a fuller understanding of Pynchon’s societal discourse.

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We read fiction, in the narrowest sense, with the hope of comprehending and interpreting it. Yet perhaps our broader hope is that our understanding of a specific text will facilitate, at least in part, our understanding of the society in which we live. A cultural and potentially racial reading of The Crying of Lot 49 accomplishes both of these purported objectives. If Pynchon, like his fictional director Randolph Driblette, is indeed the prism through which a kaleidoscopic world is ultimately projected, then our understanding of both the text and the culture for which it was produced collides with his. Our specialized racial vantage point allows us to view Oedipa as a rope stretched between two culturally polarized classes, a transversal figure that ultimately is incapable of producing real change. Stepping outside the text, we see this incapacity as a metaphor of the psychological permanence of colonization. The reader is united with Oedipa in the grim realization that little could be done for those beneath the cultural divide. Our racial understanding of The Crying of Lot 49 reveals the Tristero organization as a force of subjugation rather than emancipation, yet this understanding carries with it broader implications outside of the novel, as we see the poor and disenfranchised reduced to inferior methods of communication. This reduction is, in Pynchon’s mind (as evidenced by “Watts”), the primary obstacle in the path of racial and cultural progress. The Crying of Lot 49 is in many ways a tremendous piece of fiction; yet perhaps even more impressive is its ability to convey racial and cultural truths through its metaphoric language.


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