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Do you know what your worldview is? Do you think that the world is an illusion and we are on a journey to enlightenment as some with a Pantheism worldview? How about the Naturalism worldview of scientific based proof and evolution? Polytheism, or Postmodernism, even Theism? There are many different worldviews available for consideration. Whichever worldview it is that you hold today may not have been the same worldview that you held ten or even twenty years ago. The situations that we experience good and bad throughout our lives have many of us changing or views and our knowledge base widens as well.

Why are we here? Is there a God? How should I live my life? These are questions that man has asked themselves for years and we have yet to find an agreeable answer for these questions. A Christian worldview can help humankind quite a bit with giving answers and giving life a purpose.

To consider aspects of a Christian worldview we are going to look at what are some key factors like God, Humanity, Jesus, and Restoration.

A Christian Worldview is based on the concept of God being Absolute. God is eternal so he never changes. God is wise, holy, faithful and god is Love.

The true God is the Creator of all things. He had no beginning and will never have an end. (Psalm 90:2) He is the Source of the good news found in the Bible. (1 Timothy 1:11) Since God gave us life, we should worship only him. (Good News from God JW Organization).

William Barclay said “Agape has to do with the mind: it is not simply an emotion which rises unbidden in our hearts; it is a principle by which we deliberately live (W. Barclay, 1974, 21). So, it is not even measurable the love that God has for us as his creation.

A person’s character speaks to who they are and what they are like. God’s actions as well speak of his character. Encompassing everything kind, patient, forgiving, and many more attributes form a Christian’s God.

Jesus’s identity is that he is Jesus. There is no secret to who he is and he has never claimed to be anything but himself. He is the son of God. Jesus came to earth born of flesh and blood to his mother Mary and his father Joseph. Lived his life according to Gods will teaching and preaching too all types of people. He practiced miracles from healing leper’s to raising Lazarus from the dead. He was tortured and ridiculed finally giving his life on for humanity to be redeemed back to God. This is important to a Christian Worldview because if there is not a Jesus Christ there is not a Christian much less a Christian Worldview.

God created all things, universe, mites, stars, birds, grass, humans, and Angels. We are unique in the fact that God created us in his image. Humans were created to worship God and to thrive in the paradise that was created for us. God wanted man to be fruitful, work the land and have dominion over the animal. To love him and to be happy. Humanity however has fallen and our nature now is sinful. The world in of itself is not the problem, we are our own problem. Self-serving wants and desires are the underlying issues of the world. Humanity has lost its original purpose of relating to God. We are his only creation that was intended to communicate with him.

Jesus’s crucifixion and death is the only solution to human problems (thoughtlife.com October 2008). Here again there are many different views on the way to salvation for Christians. The bible states that salvation is sola gratia-by grace alone. Salvation is a gift of grace from God. (K. Warner R. Wagner)

As Christians, then — or those considering the Christian faith — we need to feed our minds and hearts with enough of the gospel that we will be willing to trust our lives to Jesus’ gift on the cross. That decision, which is faith, will give us access to the grace which flows from Calvary. (D. Smith, 2009)

The transformation of self and society comes over time and through God’s freely given grace.

1. What are the benefits or strengths of Christian belief?

Living by Christian beliefs can be beneficial to someone who genuinely lives them as best they can because it will ease a lot of problems in the world. It will give some sense of purpose to life beyond the material things. It will make life more peaceful when one can have the freedom to forgive others and love them. The burden of carrying all the days drama can be released with prayer leaving a feeling of relief during this horrible world. Those who strive to live by a Christian Worldview are happier healthier individuals, communities, and societies.

2. What is troublesome or confusing about Christianity?

Many people find that the structure and formalness of Christianity is difficult to accept. Others feel as though Christianity is the largest and longest running lie that man has endured. Even others feel as if there is not any solid proof it is impossible to believe. There is a fraction who find the competing views between fractions of said Christians.

So, there are many ways that people may become confused and many reasons for finding things frustrating. When there is so much information and so many different Christian factions, and so much hypocrisy in the church some may find it difficult to get through all the muck to really find their truth.

3. How does Christianity influence a person's thinking and behavior?

If you examine the lives of a person living by a Christian way of thought and of a person living life how they see fit, it would become clear some differences. These differences may be that the person living according to the Christian path seems to have something to live for and consciences for their actions therefore trying to limit the bad behaviors of life. Or it could be the complete opposite that the person living their life willy-nilly is the kinder gentler person while the Christian is horrifying.

Often people who truly are striving to live by Christi’s example tend to live happier and more fulfilled lives. In December 2010, the Journal of American Sociological Review say that a happiness boost comes from social joys of being part of regular services. (www.liovescience.com)

Reflection: Reflect on your worldview by answering one of the following questions:

1. If you are not a Christian, what similarities and differences are there between your worldview and the Christian worldview?

2. If you are a Christian, how specifically do you live out the beliefs of the Christian worldview?

Conclusion

Whichever worldview anyone has it is up to each one of us to decide what are ultimate reality is and if it is supported by facts that we are willing to commit to and live by. Belief in God and Christ or an innate knowing of what is right and wrong is individualized. If one can logically think that these feelings come from a glob of goo that just got lucky enough to develop feelings that is fine for them. I can only logically follow my creator and my purpose to the best of my ability.

In his essay, Nah, We Straight: An Argument Against Code Switching, Vershawn Young defines the titular term as “the use of more than one language or language variety concurrently in conversation.” As the title suggests, he creates his argument around the idea that blending or “meshing” dialects together in all contexts of communication bridges the gap between different ethnic groups and is an effective way to spread equality.

On the other hand, Stanley Fish argues against this sentiment, claiming that the proper mechanisms of essay writing and composition—especially in a professional university setting—are paramount to learning. His argument implies that structure is one of the most important aspects of teaching composition, and that the way to achieve that is through standardized language instruction.

Although as an effort to prevent racism, the concept of code meshing is an honorable and worthwhile effort, I do personally believe it has its faults. It should undoubtedly be used as a tool to expedite social justice, but only to a certain extent should it be implemented. Rather than completely doing away with code switching, I am of the opinion that it—like any other social tool—has its proper place. If Young had his way, communication in the classroom, for example, would lose its professionalism and formality. If a student in her early twenties uses an abundance of curses while talking to her friends during an informal get-together, does that mean she should “code mesh” those colloquialisms with her professional manner of speaking in the classroom? If the answer is yes, that means she would blend the two and start to swear slightly during class which—while certainly breaking down stilted barriers between student and professor—takes away from the important expert/novice respect relationship. I for one would find myself respecting a college professor less if they started to engrain swear words from their personal lives into their lectures. And I believe that goes the same for students as well.

A Contrast Between Beliefs

Spirituality, religion, and the divine creation of humans have been central topics for many years. From the texts we have read, we see a major distinction between Western and Eastern society’s viewpoints. Western philosophy, as we have seen through our Ancient Greek texts, was focused on the divine, spirituality, and gods. Eastern Philosophy and views from philosophers such as Confucius, revolved around ethics, one’s self, and connecting with nature.

Within The Epic of Gilgamesh, The Iliad, and The Aeneid, gods and spirituality are prevalent and given the utmost importance. Odysseus, Achilles, Gilgamesh, and more characters within Homeric texts relied on the gods for almost everything. The gods were in charge of nature, mortals, actions, cities, etc.

The gods had the ability to bring about natural disasters and determine a persons place in the afterlife. This gained the gods a tremendous amount of respect and adoration. In Book 24 of the Iliad, when King Priam is speaking he says, “Revere the gods, Achilles! Pity me in my own right....” (145). This quote shows the respect that is expected for the gods during that time. All of the actions of the Trojan War were due to the gods themselves and the roles they played.

As we have read from the texts, we see that there isn’t really a clear outcome for the future of the characters within the Iliad and Aeneied. The future was set to be controlled and predetermined by the gods. No matter how hard people tried, the gods were to decide on everything. A Greek poet named Hesoid who lived around the time of Homer, briefly touched on the importance of gods as well.

Hesoid claimed that, “First there is emptiness, then earth, and only then do the gods appear. And, when the gods do appear on the scene, they behave in a rather disorderly way, and often bend the operations of nature according to their whims.” These explanations for the gods can be seen as both philosophical and religion based. It is known that Greek philosophers during the Western time period were focused on primarily both of those two things.

Confucius and most Eastern philosophical teachings weren’t ever too focused on the divine and gods. As mentioned prior, Confucius believed solely on “the realm of the concrete and human” (380). Going more into depth about this, Confucius believed strongly in morality and how humans were the ones who should be in touch with themselves. There were to be no other gods or spirits controlling things. We are in charge of our human capacities and everything that happens to us. He believed that it was crucial to be in tune with our selves and the nature around our Earth.

We as humans in nature are all alike but, can be known for the habits of doing good or doing evil. Despite the evil doings of others, Confucius reflects on the love for humanity that we should have. He talks about this many times in The Analects while also further discussing the importance of human nature in humanity. “What nature puts together, habit separates.” (392). I feel as though many Eastern philosophers saw things in that way and how they correlated so they sought out the pursuit of happiness through nature and discovering themselves.

Eastern and Confucian philosophy wanted to emphasize behavior and how an individual should act. For example, it was known that a child should respect their parents and superiors. “A man who respects his parents and his elders would hardly be inclined to defy his superiors.

A man who is not inclined to defy his superiors will never foment a rebellion. A gentleman works at the root. Once the root is secured, the Way unfolds. To respect parents and elders is the root of humanity.” (380) Eastern philosophy was also intently focused on maintaining a set balance of life that they completely disregarded outside forces or anything else as having control over every day things. Ideal relationships were seen as balanced and ethically moral if followed by the system and what Confucius talked about.

Unlike what I mentioned before with Western philosophies, Eastern philosophy believed that your future was determined by the choices you made in your daily life and not by gods. There is a very ethical and “zen” way of thinking behind what Confucius and many other Eastern philosophers like Cheng Yi and Gandhi thought. With virtue and piety on the top of the mind, Eastern society realized that life was a journey not meant to be taken lightly. Everything in the universe was somehow connected to each other and you had the ability to change whatever you wanted about it.

Confucius’ Analects dealt with the inner and outward life of a human. The aesthetic that understanding yourself and one’s surroundings led to a happier life was outplayed a lot. Morality and doing “what was right” wasn’t focused on as much in Ancient Western Greek philosophy. We saw heroes defying gods and ultimately facing the consequences. We saw characters begging to gods for a desired outcome.

Even the gods themselves begged to other gods. Take for example: in the Aeneid when Venus, Aeneas’s mother, begged Jupiter, king of the gods, to end the Trojans’ suffering. Overall behavior and moral ethics were put aside and were of less importance for the Greek characters within our texts. A lot of pride, arrogance, greed, and power-hungry events took place that the Eastern philosophy would not approve of. Moral power was more significant in Eastern philosophy than the term “power” in Western aspects. Confucius said to, “Put loyalty and faith above everything, and follow justice. That is how one accumulates moral power.” (389).

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, power meant everything, but, not in terms of moral power. Gilgamesh wanted to be known as the highest and most admirable man there was. This need for importance was why Gilgamesh set out to kill Humbaba and prove himself to his people. In Eastern philosophical aspects, the need to “prove oneself” would not even be prevailing in the first place.

Conclusion

As you can see, although both Western and Eastern philosophies had common values, the two were very different in a multitude of ways. Eastern philosophy established the real reason behind human existence and what a person’s purpose in the world was. All the while in Western Philosophy, starting off with the Greeks, there were only a few aspects that touched on the human condition and where it all began. Whether a person believed in multiple gods, the divine, or the realm of human nature- there is no denying that a lot can be learned from ancient times and applied to our daily modern life.

Frederick Douglass's Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave brings to light many of the injustices that African-Americans faced in the 1800s under Southern slavery. The story of Douglass's life is presented in a way that makes a compelling argument against the institution of slavery, reinforced by anecdotes detailing graphic beatings and inhumane cruelty on the part of the slaveholders. However, Douglass's most compelling argument does not simply display the physical burdens of slavery, but also speaks to the toll it takes on both slave and slaveholder. The underlying theme of the story is that slavery corrupts the minds of slaveholders and weakens slaves' intellects.

In order to justify keeping an entire race of people enslaved, slaveholders had to claim that blacks were inferior - on the same level as animals. Consequently, they paid no regard to the sanctity of black families. They treated the slaves as if their familial bonds were completely worthless - something they would never have imagined doing to another white person. This is illustrated by Douglass's own relationship to his mother, from whom he was separated in his infancy, "Very little communication ever took place between us...I was not allowed to be present during her illness, at her death, or burial...I received the tidings of her death with much the same emotions I should have probably felt at the death of a stranger" (Douglass, 21). This passage shows how the slaveholders became so convinced of the worthlessness of the slaves that they saw no reason to respect the bond between mother and child. As a result, the slaves' view of family was also skewed. In the book, although Douglass appears to know that his mother is important and desires a relationship with her, he is not saddened by her passing because he was never allowed to have a healthy relationship with her. He also has no affection for his sisters and brother, who he was similarly unable to interact with. Additionally, slaveholders showed contempt for the families by raping slave women, impregnating them, and then encouraging their white children to whip their half-black siblings, (Douglass was rumored to have been fathered by his master). Slaves suffered from the loss not only of their freedom, but also of their family life, which the slaveholders deemed unnecessary for the slaves.

Douglass argues that the slaveholders' minds were so corrupted that they viewed the slaves as animals - thus their disrespect for black families and marriages. This is displayed through the story of Mr. Covey's first slave, Caroline: "After buying her, he hired a married man of Mr. Samuel Harrison, to live with him one year; and him he used to fasten up with her every night!" (Douglass, 74) Covey, who professed to be a pious Christian, disregarded the holy institution of marriage by forcing adultery upon two unwilling people in order to breed more laborers. Additionally, the man was only hired for one year, showing that Covey had no intention of allowing the children to have any sort of relationship with their father. The attitude that regarded blacks as lesser beings warped the perceptions of slave and slaveholder alike towards black families.

Another way in which Douglass believes the slaves were kept in mental bondage was in the area of education. The ability to read and write was denied - indeed obstructed at all costs - to slaves. They were expected to work all day and remain ignorant of the world around them starting at a young age. Their masters would rather see them engaging in drinking and boxing than learning to read the Bible: "It was necessary to keep our religious masters at St. Michael's unacquainted with the fact, that, instead of spending the Sabbath in wrestling, boxing, and drinking whisky, we were trying to learn how to read the will of God; for they had much rather see us engaged in those degrading sports, than to see us behaving like intellectual, moral, and accountable beings" (Douglass, 89). Douglass argues that the slaveholders would rather have the slaves engage in frivolous and degrading activities than read the very book that their faith centered on. He says that the slaveholders kept the slaves imprisoned through this deprivation of knowledge because they made the slaves think that debauchery was all freedom entailed. Also, when Douglass himself learned to read, he discovered that he no longer had the mentality of a slave and that the injustices of the system became much more apparent, inspiring him to work harder to attain freedom. This was an epiphany that the slaveholders did not want to occur amongst their slaves because it could lead to rebellion or mass desertion.

Another way in which the slaveholders prevented the slaves from rebelling or running away was by making them accustomed to the system to the point where they accepted it as a permanent reality. From the youngest age at which they could possibly do physical labor, slave children were required to work. They grew used to a life of small rations, uncomfortable homes, long hours, and ever-vigilant overseers. Douglass says of the slaves who were selected to do errands at the largest house in the area, "It was associated in their minds with greatness. A representative could not be prouder of his election to a seat in the American Congress...They would sometimes sing the most pathetic sentiment in the most rapturous tone...To those songs I trace my first glimmering conception of the dehumanizing character of slavery" (Douglass, 28-30). This form of imprisonment is the one that Douglass seems most affected by. It is imprisonment through complacency. The slaves are so resigned to their condition and so unaware of the possibility of a better future that they rejoice when they are enslaved in a slightly more comfortable place. They desire the respect and admiration of their cruel overseers and feel they have earned it when they are sent to the Great House Farm. Rather than competing with rival farms over their own individual abilities, they bicker over who has the wealthier master and whose master treats them better. Their whole identity is based upon their masters' wealth and reputation. This is also a form of psychological bondage because it causes the slaves to not only accept their enslavement, but adopt it as a definition of their own self-worth. This acceptance and embracing of their status as slaves results in submission to perpetual servitude because it is they only way of life they have known.

Another example Douglass gives of the slaves' ignorance of any way of life other than the one they endure is his own trip to Baltimore to serve under Hugh Auld. Upon arriving, Douglass sees Mr. Auld's wife, Sophia: "And here I saw what I had never seen before; it was a white face beaming with the most kindly emotions...She did not deem it impudent or unmannerly for a slave to look her in the face" (Douglass, 45-47). Douglass had become so accustomed to white people showing overt disdain for slaves that he considered it completely unfamiliar to receive any positive attention from a white person. Sophia Auld's kindness towards him is so foreign to him that he does not even know how to act around her. The difference between black and white is made so distinct by slaveholders that the slaves are unable to comprehend a white person treating them as they would treat a fellow white person.

One of Douglass's most important arguments is that slavery corrupts and mentally enslaves the white slaveholders, as well. The clearest example is that of Sophia Auld. Douglass says of her, "The fatal poison of irresponsible power was already in her hands, and soon commenced its infernal work. That cheerful eye, under the influence of slavery, soon became red with rage; that voice, made all of sweet accord, changed to one of harsh and horrid discord; and that angelic face gave place to that of a demon" (Douglass, 47-48). Invoking images similar to those of a demonic possession, Douglass describes the transformation that Mrs. Auld undergoes when she becomes a slaveholder. After initially attempting to teach Douglass to read, she changes her opinion to that of her husband, believing that "education and slavery were incompatible with each other" (Douglass, 52). The power she gained over another human being and her desire to retain this power motivated her to try to keep Douglass in ignorance and treat him like a lesser being. She had once been kind-hearted, but is transformed by her corrupting power into a cruel and unfeeling person, exploding with rage at Douglass when he tries to read. Slavery blinds her to the suffering of another person with whom she normally would have sympathized.

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Douglass's narrative is, on the surface, intended to show the barbarity and injustice of slavery. However, the underlying argument is that freedom is not simply attained through a physical escape from forced labor, but through a mental liberation from the attitude created by Southern slavery. The slaves of the South were psychologically oppressed by the slaveholders' disrespect for black families and for education, as well as by the slaves' acceptance of their own subordination. Additionally, the slaveholders were trapped by a mentality that allowed them to justify behavior towards human beings that would normally not be acceptable. In this manner, both slaveholder and slave are corrupted by slavery.

News networks are naturally different in reporting their stories depending on where they are located. FOX News is reputed to lean more towards the Republican side, being located in Dallas, Texas. CNN, on the other hand, has always seemed to lean a bit more liberal, seeing as they are located in New York. I chose these two in hopes that it would be a little bit more obvious in their differences.

On their websites, looking at the politics section, on FOX, we have coverage on protestors, the first meetings, cabinet role members, first ladies, etc…, however on CNN, I basically just see Trump bashing. They seem to be very worried since they really have no idea what he’ll do next. They also have an article coming up with five reasons Clinton won’t be prosecuted and several articles on different social groups fearing Trump.

I also watched a bit of a newscast on FOX News about the protests. The anchor was very sure to let the people know that it was kept non-violent though there were a mention of a few heated arguments when Trump supporters showed up and the protestors tried to cover up the Pro-Trump Signs. Compared to the CNN News, which was over a man being beaten up while bystanders were yelling about him voting for Trump. There were fifty people around and no one did anything to help. His car was stolen and he was severely injured.

I tried to find two videos that were about the same sort of topic. When reporting, FOX was a little bit more detached, CNN gave me more feeling, as there wasn’t really an anchor, but they also interviewed the man who was attacked and the topic was more of a sad one, versus just protestors blocking the street. But in history of me actually watching each news channel, I have noticed that CNN and the show with the four women, that includes Whoopi Goldberg is definitely pretty liberal. The fact that CNN is only worried about what Trump will do next and not the fact that there have been some pretty violent protests and riots from those who say “Love Trumps Hate” worries me. FOX has always been Republican and obviously with all this BLM, they have been on the side of the cops, who are accused of wrongful shootings.

All in all, you can’t totally expect a news channel to be completely in the middle, but depending on which one you watch, that’s the take on the information you will be getting.

The essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot incorporates many ideas sympathetic to those found in Pound’s poetry, thus allowing Pound to be comprehended more completely by one who has first read Eliot’s essay. If one were to read Eliot’s essay, he could in turn pick up ideas central to understanding Pound’s poetry, such as: the importance of tradition and the classics to poetry, the reader’s knowledge of great works of the past, and that an authors poems often consist of ideas and feelings foreign to them. If one were to keep these general ideas in his mind while reading Pound’s poems, his understanding would be much more complete, and would arrive there before the reader who hasn’t prepared himself with Eliot’s essay.

One of the first aspects of Eliot’s essay which would help one who is getting ready to read Pound is the emphasis of the importance of tradition and the classics to poetry. Pound feels as if being totally foreign to tradition is one of the worst things that a poet can do. He feels as if tradition is a rich part of any poetry. Eliot states that “…the historical sense compels a man to write…with a feeling that the whole of the literature of Europe from Homer and within it the whole of the literature of his own country has a simultaneous existence and composes a simultaneous order.” Eliot is stating that the poet should write with all the influence that he has gained through his experiences and teachings, and then he can create a masterful poem.

Eliot’s essay encourages the reader to learn and embrace the classics, which in turn are very useful in understanding and reading Pound’s literature. Eliot’s refers back to the classics, much like Pound, just on a lesser scale, thus acclimating the reader to Pounds technique. Eliot even goes so far as to include a quote in Greek much like Pound does on several occasions. He states, “…[a poet’s] significance, his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists.” In this statement he insinuates that the reader must have sufficient knowledge of the “dead poets and artists” in order to truly appreciate the value of a poets work. Eliot also mentions that the author’s work must be compared to the works of past authors in order to fully see its greatness. Eliot’s use of seductive statements such as the aforementioned one effectively convince his reader to develop a richer knowledge of the classics, and therefore coincide with Pound’s goal.

When one reads Eliot’s essay he can notice that Eliot believes a poet’s actual feelings and emotions are not necessarily the emotions that he portrays in a given poem. This is definitely true in Pound’s work, as can be clearly seen in his poem, “The River Merchants Wife.” This work is an altered version of an 8th century poem, which was actually written by a Chinese poet named Li Taipo. Naturally, since the poem is not his originally it can’t possibly be his feelings and emotions, although it can be partially in agreement with him. Eliot makes a good example of this in his essay with an example dealing with chemistry and a catalyst. As the catalyst is being compared to the poet’s mind, it is separate from the feelings and emotions contained in a poem, and remains wholly unchanged by the process the poet goes through in his creation of a poem. Pound is infamous for utilizing this style in his creation of poetry, often taking plots from past literary works, and molding them into his own art.

Reading the essay ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot truly helps one understand Ezra Pound’s poetry for what it was originally meant to be. Pound utilizes the technique of including emotions and feelings totally foreign to him in his poetry, which Eliot warns is quite common in good poetry. It is Eliot’s belief that only through incorporation of ones influences, both past and present, a poet can truly be original. Utilizing the suggestions supplied by Eliot, and therefore enriching his knowledge of the classics, the reader can use Eliot as a handbook to reading Pound more effectively.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Knowledge & Sources
Relevant Historiography
3. Conclusion

“All history is present history in the sense that the concerns of the present are bound somehow to affect the way history is studied and written.” ~ Paul Anthony Cartledge

Introduction

Historiography may be one of the most effective, and arguably even the best, means of truly knowing the past. As the quote from Paul Anthony Cartledge points out, it is inevitable that people (both historians and the layman alike) are likely to put their own spin on history, matching it to a specific narrative, philosophy, faith, personal opinion, or even emotion. Historiography offers the opportunity for those who wish to understand history as it actually happened to take a critical approach, examining not only the events of history but how these events have been treated by history. This is not necessarily an easy process; particularly for ancient history, there are a great many challenges in distinguishing between history and historiography. However, the main benefit is clear: taking an approach that considers historiography is likely to result in a more robust, and even more relevant and accurate, picture of the past. With this in mind, this research paper examines the Ancient Israelites in the context of the Ancient Near East; however, rather than merely presenting an historical picture of the Israelites in this ancient historical context, the paper considers the historiography of the Ancient Israelites in this context. Doing so arguably provides more insight than any other historical approach.

There are great many academic papers, books, and other forms of research on Ancient Israelite historiography in the Ancient Near East and this research paper cannot come close to examining them all, let alone accurately and concisely depicting all that they have to say. While this paper is certainly not exhaustive, the range of sources (in the sense of substance, style, and timing) provides a relatively holistic picture of this specific set of historiography, and presents some of the most authoritative texts on the topic. In order to address the topic of Ancient Israelite historiography in the context of the Ancient Near East, the paper first turns to a discussion of the relevant knowledge and sources; this includes both a description of the sources used and a definition of terms. The paper then turns to the historiography at hand, examining ten unique academic sources to form a picture of the topic. Overall, the paper shows that an accurate understanding of this historiography is perhaps the best way to understand Ancient Israelites. As one academic source states, “Not to know the way forward is to be lost. To have forgotten how one has come is to be doubly lost…the double lostness that results when insufficient effort is expended to retrace the path that has led to the current situation. The place to begin the present volume then, is with a look backward.” In other words, in order to avoid getting lost in the vast topic that is Ancient Israel, it is crucial to approach the history regarding the topic that has already been completed – this is historiography at its best. As the author notes, understanding how the topic has been treated in the past will help us to understand how to move forward in the future. The thought also calls to mind a particularly set of lyrics from The Clash that rings true for history and archeology:

Wait a minute, my friend

Don’t pass me up for dead

As Babylon crumbles to sand

A sweet flower blossoms in my hand

Another day is ending for you

For this historiography paper, two things are clear: Ancient Israelite history is far from dead, and historiography offers the sweet flower. One only has to pursue historiography for history to bloom in the hand.

Knowledge & Sources

As noted above, this paper utilizes a variety of sources in order to accurately and concisely complete a historiography of Ancient Israelites within the context of the Ancient Near East. More specifically, the paper discusses five journal articles and five academic history books, each of which treat the historiography of Ancient Israelites to a full discourse, and each of which have their own slightly different approach. Each of the resources will discussed in turn, and in detail, below; however, for now it is worthwhile to note the general makeup of the historiography. The sources used in this paper range from over seven decades ago (from 1940) to just a few years ago, so there is certainly a balanced view presented here since each has a slightly different slant. Moreover, most of the sources deal specifically with the historiography o Ancient Israelites within the Ancient Near East, rather than historical accounts, so this paper serves as a sort of secondary analysis of the findings found within these primary sources. Because of the limited scope and timeframe for this paper, this is the best way to reach a balanced and holistic view of the historiography at hand. Before moving on, it is also important to define the topic more specifically. Israelite historiography, for the purposes of this paper, can be defined as “all the writing about the people’s past from their origins to their development as a people and nation in Palestine and its ultimate fate at the hands of the Near East imperial powers.” In other words, historiography in this case is any and all record of this specific people group within this specific geographical context. It is the experience of the Israelites, not only within themselves, but within both the familiar (i.e. Canaan) and foreign (i.e. Mesopotamia and Egypt) context that they found themselves. Another conception of historiography in relation to the Old Testament is as “a form of narrative that makes reference to past events in the history of the nation in a chronological sequence from the time of human and national origins to the historical period of the author.” This is what makes this subset of historiography so fascinating: it has to do with the formation, solidification, and emergence of the Israelites as a people group. This is an identity that, at least in some form, remains to this day.

Relevant Historiography

Now that the identification of the sources and definition of the main concept in this paper has been established, the discussion can now turn to an overview of how the academic literature treats the historiography of the Ancient Israelites in the context of the Ancient Near East. The most complex aspect of historiography and the Bible is the question of whether to treat it as history or simply text: “It is both the burden and opportunity of a new generation of historians to think through once again the foundational presuppositions guiding the interpretation of ancient texts and the way in which the historian reconstructs a past from them.” In this way, one of the major questions of historiography in this context is how to treat the very texts that make up the history of the Ancient Israelites. However, if anything this makes the historiography that much more interesting: “This should…be regarded as a necessary development, which demands of historians to take, at least a practical, interest also in epistemological and ontological questions.” In other words, historians should be just as concerned with the theoretical implications of this history as the narrative ones; however, this does not necessarily require a positivistic approach to the history of the Bible. With this in mind, the historiography of the Ancient Israelites can be complicated, to say the least.

However, this complication in the historiography need not interfere with the insight that historians are able to glean from the approach. As one academic notes, “For the early part of this spectrum there is no ancient distinction between myth, legend, and history so that in the present tradition the story of Israel’s past begins with creation,” with the intended expression of how the foundation of Ancient Israelites’ “corporate identity, their social and moral values, their political and religious institutions, their relationship to the land, and their place in the wide family of peoples of the Near East.” Under this conception, there is little need to distinguishing between history and myth, since the narrative remains the same.

This becomes even more important when one considers the fact that the biblical passages from Genesis to the end of 2 Kings were not written by a single author, but by many different writers across a wide and far reaching period of time. This makes the non-positivistic, narrative-focused approach to historiography and the history of Ancient Israelites even more compelling. It is also the approach that is likely to result in the most historical insight, since it does not limit these passages, but instead expands upon them with outside sources. This ideation of historiography is confirmed by another work by John Van Seters, who states “Israelite historiography is not critical of its sources of information about the past, which may include myths and legends about origins, however much it reshapes them for its own presentation.” In yet another work, the same author concludes that “History writing is a specific form of tradition in its own right…Any explanation of the genre as merely the accidental accumulation of traditional material is inadequate.” In other words, approaching the history of the bible need not be humanistic nor purely religious, as long as the historian (taking an approach of historiography) recognizes the influence that the subjective development of the history of the Ancient Israelites has had on modern knowledge.

But what kind of development did Ancient Israelites have in the context of the Ancient Near East? What does historiography have to say on this development? There are several interesting insights when responding to these questions. First of all, the overarching theological theme of the history of the Ancient Israelites is clear: “The theological overtones appear in a narrative pattern that is strongly schematized.” From the blame of kings for going away from God in the eyes of the Deuteronomists to the exile of the people, the narrative is presented as “a long, coherent account about the elected people who entirely and at all times broke the contract with…their god.” In other words, the main theme from a historiography viewpoint of Ancient Israelites within the Ancient Near East is not only the formation of a people, but a formation and reformation of that people group’s relationship with their deity.

This contention is confirmed by another academic source, who states that the historiography of the Ancient Israelites does not pretend to be a communication from god, but instead “serve as communication to the deity… Consequently, the audience is neither future kings nor the gods – it is the people of the covenant.” More than that, the historiography is not always positive, but for individuals and the Israelites as a whole, which puts to rest some concerns of political or even theological bias: “As a result this material would be very ineffective political polemic…The Bible also makes clear throughout that its purpose is not to offer revelation of any particular person or group, but to serve as Yahweh’s revelation of himself.” This is confirmed by another scholar, who contrasts the theology of the Ancient Israelites with that of their Mosopotamian neighbors: “The nature of the gods could give no feeling of certainty and security in the cosmos… Man always found himself confronted by the tremendous forces of nature, and nature, especially in Mesopotamia, showed itself to be cruel, indiscriminate [and] unpredictable.” In this way, it is clear that the historiography of the Ancient Israelites is intimately tied up with their theology, as it directly informed how they interacted with other groups and became a people group themselves.

But how is all of this known? How is historiography actually formed, particularly in our modern day? In answer to these questions, there are two major sources that give insight for the historian: W.F. Albright from 1940, who can be considered one of the cornerstones of biblical historiography, and Mark W. Chavalas, writing more than half a century later and who responds to the positivism of Albright with a more social and historiographic approach. First, Albright states that there are four main groups of “religious literature from the ancient Near East” that shed light on the Ancient Israelites: “Egyptian, Mesopotamian (Sumero-Accadian), Horito-Hittite, and West Semitic (Canaanite, Aramaean, South Arabian).” From these sources, historian scan conduct “decipherment and rough translation, the development of grammatical and lexicographical study,” and “detailed dialectic and syntactic research, accompanied by monographic studies of selected classes of documents.” This is how historians are able to form the knowledge that they have about Ancient Israelites, and the Ancient Near East as a whole. However, the more issue is how these sources are treated. As Albright goes on to state, “In dealing with the ancient Near East we must carefully estimate the degree of assurance with which we can translate our documents and interpret our archaeological materials.” This is the whole idea of historiography.

In this regard, Chavalas contrasts the modern approach of ancient history with that of the past: “Previous generations have tended toward the study of theology and literary criticism, usually by theologians who were often not trained as historians;” in contrast, historians who discuss the same history in more recent years instead “concentrate on socio-economic, anthropological and historiographic issues.” In other words, even the same sources as described above can vary depending on the method of interpretation – whether theological, literary, anthropological, or sociological. This applies not only to the modern historian, but the historians that wrote the texts in question as well. As Chavalas goes on to ask, “What was the relationship between the antiquarian writer and the concerns of his own time period? …Synchronic interests guided his interpretations but did not determine them.” In this way, any reading of biblical texts must be contextualized within its social context, both of the subject and of the original writer – not to mention the author of the secondary text. Therefore, biblical history is formed as much by interpretation as by original texts.

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Conclusion

While far from exhaustive, this research-based discussion paper has examined the historiography of the Ancient Israelites in the Ancient Near East by turning to some of the most relevant and pertinent sources on the topic. In this examination, the paper has revealed (or, at the very least, reconfirmed) three essential truths to history as seen through the lens of historiography. First, there is a complicated relationship between historical text and interpretation, particularly when original texts are concerned with theology and other mythological issues. Second, the paper has shown how the historiography of the Ancient Israelites reveals the way in which Israelite identity formed around the people group’s ideas surrounding their deity, and became central to the continuation of their identity. True or not, the mythology of the Ancient Israelites is nearly interchangeable with their historiography. Finally, in light of the previous two insights, the paper has shown that narrative takes precedence over the debate between fact and myth when it comes to historiography and religion. In other words, it is not the main concern of historiography to sort out fact from fiction, but to gain an understanding of how an ancient people group formed and understood itself. A historiography of Ancient Israelites fits within this paradigm.

Love is an idea that many are familiar with - a term used to characterize one’s deep affection for someone. Love is unique in the ways that it is manifested and presented. Sometimes love is portrayed as genuine devotion to another, while other times it is portrayed as simply lustful. In some cases, love can be so intense that it develops into pure madness to possess one’s lover. Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” and Percy Shelley’s “Love’s Philosophy” are direct contrasts in the ways that they portray love. “Love’s Philosophy” presents love as honest and divine as “To His Coy Mistress” presents love as a lustful sentiment. In addition to these two poems, Robert Browning dwells upon the subject of madness in his dramatic monologue, “Porphyria’s Lover,” presenting madness as the result of love as well as the result for a man’s need to control and possess. These poems all portray the radically different views of the nature of love.

“To His Coy Mistress” portrays the lustful aspects of “love”. Although this poem is a love poem, the poem culminates into one huge ultimatum, which is: sleep with me because we’re running out of time. The first stanza of the poem is when the speaker makes his first point. He opens the poem by saying “Had [they] but world enough, and time…[they] would sit down, and think which way to walk, and pass [their] long love’s day” (Marvell 1-4); meaning that if there were enough time, he would be patient in loving her. He continues on by using flattery to tell his lover how he would “love at [no] lower rate” because she deserves nothing but first class love . Then he introduces the “but” statement. Although he would like to love her at a slow and patient rate, he claims that he can “hear / Time’s winged chariot hurrying near” and so must rush her. He then brings into account the next reason why they must hurry the pace of their love—this being because her beauty will eventually fade. He claims that her “beauty shall no more be found” and that the “worms shall try / That long-preserved virginity”. As grotesque as that sounds, he is basically attempting to provoke a sense of urgency within his lover as well as scare her by saying she will die a virgin. In the end, he states that they are basically trapped in the prison of life and that the only way to escape is by “tear[ing] [their] pleasures with rough strife / Through the iron gates of life”. This whole poem, as symbolic and insightful as it may sound, culminates to the simple fact that his love for his lover manifests in the utmost lustful—and almost vain—manner that a love poem could ever get.

In direct contrast to “To His Coy Mistress,” “Love’s Philosophy” presents love as genuine and heartfelt as the poet, Shelley, utilizes personification throughout most of the poem. This use of personification allows the many descriptions of the grandiosity of his love to seem even grander. Shelley splits the poem into two stanzas; each ending with a question. In the first stanza, he states that the “fountains mingle with the river... [and that] the winds of Heaven mix for ever” (Shelley 1-3). Along with this description, Shelley argues that nothing in the world is single and he ends the short stanza by asking that if everything in this world has a match, “Why not I with thine?” (Shelley 8). The second stanza follows the same pattern, presenting love, again, as grandiose and divine as the “mountains kiss high Heaven / And the waves clasp one another” (Shelley 9-10). But as he concludes describing the marvelous essence of nature, he asks “What is all this sweet work worth / If thou kiss not me?” (Shelley 15-16). The manner in which Shelley expresses the nature of love is one of true honesty and love as is seen in his simple but beautiful descriptions of the Earth.

Unlike the lovey-dovey personality that “To His Coy Mistress” and “Love’s Philosophy” possess, “Porphyria’s Lover” focuses on the strained relationship between Porphyria and her lover that quickly digresses to her death, as a result of social barriers and the lover’s obsession with Porphyria. The poem begins with Porphyria entering a cottage where her lover patiently waits as she starts a fire and “[makes] the cheerless grate / Blaze up, and all the cottage warm," revealing her authority in establishing the environment in which they reside (Browning 8-9). It can be seen that Porphyria possesses the control in the relationship which her lover makes obvious when he states that “She put [his] arm about [her] waist” and “made [his] cheek lie there, / and spread, o’er all, her yellow hair” (Browning 16-18) Although Porphyria is seemingly the one in control, her lover reveals her “Murmuring how she love[s] [him]” and how “She [is] too weak […] / [To] give herself over to [him] for ever” (Browning 21-25). Not only is it made clear that Porphyria is reluctant to be with him, but it also presents the idea that her lover is upset that she does not make him her primary and only love. In fact, C.R. Tracy observes that Porphyria’s lover knows that “Porphyria loves him passionately but has not the strength of character necessary to make her true to him” and, therefore, finds it more logical to kill her rather than let her live (579). Porphyria’s lover also suggests her social standing as an upper class woman when he claims that she is incapable of setting her “passion free from pride, and vainer ties,” establishing the social barrier that perturbs him from fully possessing Porphyria. In the moment that Porphyria’s lover recognizes that she reciprocates his love for her, he revels in the moment because at last he knows that “Porphyria worship[s] [him]” (Browning 33). His love for her is so obsessive and desperate that he is led to madness and finds another reason to keep her in this perfect instance by killing her. He goes on to state that in “That moment she was mine, mine, mine," highlighting the idea that he now possesses her and can keep her forever (Browning 36). Not only does the night continue with the now-deceased Porphyria lying beside her lover, but her lover also goes on to describe Porphyria as significantly more alive after death, with cheeks that “Blushed bright” (Browning, 48). Her lover’s madness and desperation is so severe that he feels as if he has allowed “Her darling one wish […] be heard” (Browning 57). This manner of expressing love is much more extreme than many love poems in the way that love is seen to drive someone to madness.

Although Porphyria’s lover did end up murdering Porphyria as a way of possessing her, he holds a completely different view of his partner. It can be seen that he does wish for her to love him, and only him, but he does not share the trait with the speaker of “To His Coy Mistress” where he expresses his lustful nature to the extreme. Actually, his madness spouts from the opposite idea - he feels as if he does not have the social standing to keep her with him forever and, therefore, kills her out of desperation.

Love, as we all know, is quite complicated. Not only is it complicated, but it is different for everyone. Some choose to express their love through a sincere and warm expression as is seen in “Love’s Philosophy”, while others make it obvious that love is simply possessing the other through sexual relations as is seen in “To His Coy Mistress”. In the utmost level, love can also be presented as destructive. As is evident in “Porphyria’s Lover”, love kicked up a few notches creates a sense of madness and desperation, which culminates in the death of Porphyria. It is interesting, indeed, to dissect how these poems accurately portray the many ways in which we love.

Environmental Education is a fluctuating and diverse field that focuses primarily on the educational process that has remained neutral. There is no doubts that the importance of environmental education exists, however in this essay this topic is revealed. The primary goal of environmental education is to educate individuals and improve their skills in critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making in a participatory manner. 

Environmental Education includes various number of Republic acts aimed at increasing awareness, management, protection, and conservation of the environment and its limited resources. Solid waste is material that is normally discarded as unnecessary and unwanted. It can be found on the streets, in commercial establishments, and in homes. It is classified in several ways. Municipal waste is generated as a result of municipal activities. Domesticresidential waste can be found in any multi-family home. Bottles, plastics, and paper could all fall into this category. Commercial waste generated by commercial establishments such as restaurants and stores. Garbage is defined as waste containing prutrescible organic matter. Because this type of waste emits a foul odor, it must be handled properly to avoid attracting rats and flies.

Rubbish is waste generated by our homes, businesses, and institutions. Institutional waste is waste generated by institutes that is considered hazardous to health and the environment. Bulky household waste is household waste that cannot be fully accommodated. Sewage waste should be buried or disposed of as soon as possible because it emits a foul odor. Because dead animals prutrefy and emit a foul odor, they pose a threat to public health. It attracts flies and vermin due to its odor. Biomedicalhospital waste is waste generated by hospitals that is used for patient diagnosis and treatment. Hazardous waste management can have serious consequences for human health and pose a threat to the environment.It is dealt with appropriately due to its negative effects on humans and the environment. This waste incorporates chemical production, manufacturing, and industrial activities. Waste prevention is the focus of zero waste management. Its goal is to encourage people to reuse and recycle until they reach their optimal level of consumption. The goal of this management is to help reduce waste.

And the last one os that environmental awareness educates and informs people about the dangers of consuming as much as we do now, as well as the devastation it causes. Humanity requires a thorough understanding of, and prior knowledge of, the threats to our planet. Waste continues to endanger public health and the environment. As a result, environmental awareness focuses on issues such as environmental health, sustainable development, and global warming.

What do demonstrations on city streets in the Philippines in 2001, the election of Barack Obama as President of the United States in 2008, revocation of the results of the fraudulent elections in Moldavia in 2009, the M-15 movement with their camps and demonstrations in Spain in 2011, the so-called “Arab Spring” in the Middle East in early 2011, and the “Occupy Wall Street” movement that started in New York, also in 2011, all have in common? They have all used social media to help organize such protests and mobilize their responsible agents. Yet these were much more than just about arranging a party: they all greatly exploited social media to establish communication networks and move towards their objectives. Today’s social media have helped make real the idea of a “global village”, first put forward by communications theorist Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s, and suggests the claims of a “flat world” by twenty-first-century essayist Thomas L. Friedman are true.

According to Friedman, personal computers and the speed of the optic cable in the transfer of information have marked the modern revolution and almost removed the limitations of time and space. Social media’s quick development into an important tool that influences society is part of the advancement of information and communication technologies, with the first noteworthy trend has been the evolution of the Internet, with different social media and social web communities as its central components. This essay aims at analyzing and putting in evidence the influence that social media has had on politics. Both positive and negative aspects of the issue will be brought forward, followed by an examination of the current situation and possible future outcomes.

How has social media transformed politics and how will this trend continue? Not long ago social media offered a promise of a more enlightened politics, as accurate information and effortless communication would help “good people” drive out corruption, bigotry, and lies. Yet, Facebook acknowledged that before and after the last American elections, between January 2015 and August 2017, 146m users may have seen Russian misinformation on its platform. Google’s YouTube admitted to 1,108 Russian-linked videos and Twitter to 36,746 accounts. Therefore, far from bringing enlightenment, social media have been responsible for complicating the political scene even more. Russia’s trouble-making is only one example. From South Africa to Europe, politics seem to be getting uglier. Part of the reason is that, by spreading untruth and outrage, influencing voters’ judgment and aggravating partisanship, social media erode the conditions for negotiation and communication, key elements in preserving liberty and democracy. Then again, it is important to keep in mind the fact that the use of social media does not cause division so much as amplify it. The financial crisis of 2007-08 fed popular anger at a wealthy elite that had left everyone else behind.

The culture wars have split voters by identity rather than class. Similarly, nor are social media alone in their power to polarise—just look at cable TV and talk radio. But, whereas Fox News is familiar, social-media platforms are new and still poorly understood. And because of how they work, they wield extraordinary influence. Social media companies make money by putting photos, personal posts, news stories and ads in front of you. Because they are able to measure how we react, they also know just how to get under our skin. For instance, some of the biggest values of social media lie in its immediacy and its effective ability to engage with a wider scale of the public, especially younger voters. A good example is that of President Barack Obama, who was the first politician to tap into the power of social media during his two successful campaigns. It would be ideal if such a system helped only wisdom and truth rise to the surface and influence millions of others across the globe. But, the truth is not beauty so much as it is hard work—especially when you disagree with it. To give an illustration, it is commonly known for those who scroll through Facebook how, instead of imparting “wisdom”, the system dishes out compulsive stuff that tends to reinforce people’s biases. Because different sides see different facts, they share no empirical basis for reaching a compromise, tending to slowly discredit the subtleties of liberal democracy and boosting the politicians who feed off conspiracy and nativism.

In Myanmar (an example of contemporary relevance) since Facebook is the main source of news for many, it has deepened the antagonism directed against the Rohingya. In order to be able to develop a deeper understanding of the discussion, it is important to enquire through which means and which specific consequences have social media have in Politics. Notably, social media’s impact on Politics has become a new trend as it grows in importance as a forum for political activism, with its rise transforming the way in which political communications were traditionally carried out. Political leaders, political parties, institutions, and foundations are all using social media as a new way to establish contact with and engage with the voters.

Individuals, politicians, thought leaders and similar people are able to express their opinions, interact with an extensive network and connect with other like-minded individuals. An important way through which social media have transformed politics is the increased speed at which news, poll results, and rumors are shared. Whereas in the pre-internet days, people had to wait for the next newspaper or TV news show to get the latest information, online news is a 24/7 phenomenon, and social media have taken this a step further. However, while there is the possibility to access news on many websites at any hour, most people tend to spend more time on specific websites such as such as Facebook and Twitter than they do on more serious or professional news or political websites. This means that what people mostly get is all of the latest trending news stories and opinions shared by their own “friends” or highlighted by the system itself due to the algorithms in the website. Another interesting novelty is related to political polls, an important part of every campaign.

As with other types of political news, the internet has greatly increased the number of poll results available each day and once more social media has helped to accelerate this process even more. Not only do social media sites report the results of polls but they also enable users to participate on them (like for example in Facebook). And this matters because polls results have a big influence on elections, even if they are flawed. A poll can be a self-fulfilling prophecy. For example, if people think one candidate is far ahead in the race, they might conclude there’s no point in voting for the underdog. Furthermore, one of the types mentioned positive effects that social media has on politics is the opportunity for voters to interact more easily with candidates and elected officials. Traditionally, if you wanted to meet a politician or candidate, you’d have to attend a live event. However, as with the other two previous examples, this also has its downsides, since the lack of intermediaries or filters, such as trained journalists or editors, allows for this influence to emanate from the other side as well, uncontrolled and uncensored, something potentially dangerous if the message being widespread serves to promote hatred and anger towards a specific target (normally a minority group).

Targeting is used throughout the advertising industry to make sure that ads and messages reach the right audience and it has become an important phenomenon in the political world as well, enabling in the age of social media politicians and people running for office to target their campaigns. If a candidate wants to address the concerns of women, college students, retired people, Latinos or any other group of voters, they can now specifically tailor their messages. Just as advertisers on Facebook are able to use analytics and targeted advertising, so can candidates and politicians. Thus, if we notice that political messages seem to be talking to us personally, it is no accident. One of the biggest concerns regarding the relationship between social media and politics is the fact that political campaigns are now influenced by every story, whether true or not, that gets spread around social media. It’s becoming increasingly difficult to separate actual news from fake news online, especially since the core characteristics of social media contribute for this distinctive line to become even thinner. It has become easy to be influenced by misinformation posted by “friends” and followers, even if there is no actual intention to mislead. Likewise, one of the hidden forces that operate on social media (especially powerful when it comes to controversial topics, such as politics) is the before mentioned confirmation bias.

The majority of people tend to have internet interactions with people that share their outlook, which means that one continually gets content that expresses their same point of view, especially on social media sites, where this can create the illusion that “everybody” thinks the same way, leading us to live in differentiated “filter bubbles”. It is interesting to mention the formation of what has come to be called as tribal epistemology. Information is evaluated based not on conformity to common standards of evidence or correspondence to a common understanding of the world, but on whether it supports the tribe’s values and goals and is vouchsafed by tribal leaders. “Good for our side” and “true” begin to blur into one. This applied to politics can help foster the growing intolerance of others. Hence, it is due to dangers like these that (social) media literacy becomes increasingly significant, since it helps to raise awareness and use a great deal of discernment, elements necessary before believing anything. It can be argued that social media has changed the political landscape in four main ways.

First, it has created a direct interaction channel between voters and politicians, giving voters the opportunity to interact more easily with the political entities and the latter to evade the traditional process of reaching citizens which involved huge investments (like paid advertising). Live streaming is a great example to illustrate this, as it makes it possible to attend/host virtual events, which encourage the interaction with politicians and candidates. Second, the social media platform allows political parties to advertise their campaigns without paying huge amounts for it or being able to raise in a short period of time a vast sum, trough online campaigns. As often journalists also cover campaigns and write about such YouTubeFacebook ads, this essentially broadcasts the messages of the politicians to a wider audience at zero cost to the politicians. It also relates to the critics towards the old system of media “gatekeepers” (such as newspapers), who are accused of slavish adherence to the agendas of their owners. Third, it enables the customization of messages based on audience demographics in order to increase the effectiveness of the campaign. And lastly, rumors, fake news, controversies and the speed with which those are promoted hinder ability to discern “good” from “bad” information. In short, social media has redesigned structures and methods of modern political communication. While the positive aspects of it can be attained, such as an increase in democratic engagement and voter turnout, the lack of traditional filters and the easiness with which news gets spread to put in evidence the difficulties associated with this phenomenon. The often wild tendencies of the online world may seem to be the spontaneous actions of a newly liberated public to express their views.

Social media serves as a mere amplifier, just augmenting the proportions of everything that reaches the web, but not really being the core causer or motive of any major change. It is a catalyzer of things that are already on the doing. In face of all that, the question of “what is to be done?” surely pops to mind. People will adapt, as they always do. Yet, in the time it takes for this adaptation to take place, bad governments with bad politics could do a lot of harm. Some are calling for social-media companies, like publishers, to be accountable for what appears on their platforms; to be more transparent; and to be treated as monopolies that need breaking up. Politics is not like other kinds of speech; it is dangerous to ask a handful of big firms to deem what is healthy for society. Nevertheless, breaking up social-media giants might make sense in antitrust terms, but it would not help with political speech—indeed, by multiplying the number of platforms, it could make the industry harder to manage. With this in mind, there are other remedies.

Social-media companies should adjust their sites to make it clearer if a post comes from a friend or a trusted source. They could accompany the sharing of posts with reminders of the harm from misinformation. Bots are often used to amplify political messages. Twitter could disallow the worst—or mark them as such. Nonetheless, because these changes cut against a business model designed to monopolize attention, they may well have to be imposed by law or by a regulator. In conclusion, one thing that is certain is the fact that social media are being abused. But, with a will, society can tackle this issue and revive that early dream of enlightenment.

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An interesting example is that there are now proposals for internet voting, which could lead to more a higher democratic engagement in elections, making social media even more influential. Other advancements such as polling techniques on social media are expected to become more common and, hopefully, more accurate. But above all, it is important to keep in mind that social media are relatively new, so if we’re just starting to see its impacts on society and how it will develop in the future entirely depends on our relationship with it now.

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