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Shakespeare frequently makes use of the adjective ‘weird’ in his tragedy Macbeth. Along with bringing to mind the supernatural and unearthly, the word also forces one to consider the nature of the word’s antonym – what is normal? Macbeth’s emotions and actions become progressively more disjointed through the course of the play. When ultimately he loses his ability to feel emotion, Macbeth also loses his humanity; in other words, he becomes ‘weird.’

The prophecy catalyzing Macbeth’s demise comes from the “Weird Sisters,” and ‘weirdness’ is prevalent throughout the play. For example, Ross says: “Threescore and ten I can remember well: Within the volume of which time I have seen hours dreadful and things strange; but this sore night hath trifled former knowings” (2:4:1-4). Ghosts appear frequently in Macbeth, as do paranormal occurrences. Shakespeare does not use supernatural elements merely to drive the plot, however; elements of weirdness help elucidate Macbeth’s tragic flaw by forcing the reader to define normalcy.

In order to fully understand the importance of ‘weird,’ one must also examine the play’s other themes and symbols. The play’s opening lines are full of dialectic speech and paradox. The Weird Sisters’ speech is full of statements such as “When the battle’s lost and won” (1:1:4) and, “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (1:1:12). Macbeth repeats the paradox in a prophetic way: “So foul and fair a day I have not seen” (1:3:38). Thus from the beginning, the reader is inclined to question the opposite of a statement or scene. For example, Lady Macbeth asks the murdering ministers to un-sex her. What is the opposite of an un-sexed woman? Not man but instead a sort of ‘not-woman’ who cannot be defined without reference to her opposite. So it is that Macbeth’s tragic flaw as ‘weird human’ cannot be understood without first defining a normal human.

To help define the normal human we can turn to the Macbeth of the play’s early acts. He is introduced as a valiant warrior and faithful constituent of the king. Duncan summarizes Macbeth’s attributes by saying, “More is thy due than more than all can pay” (1:4:21). Macbeth possesses normal human emotions, rational nature, and an exceptional ability to convey his feelings: “Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair and make my seated heart knock at my ribs?” (1:3:135-136). Macbeth reveals his intense emotionality again with his fear of disappointing Duncan: “He’s here in double trust; First, as I am his kinsman and his subject” (1:7:12-13). These examples make it clear that in the beginning of the play, Macbeth is a fully normal human who is well respected by the highest-ranking men of his society.

Since it is established that Macbeth is an emotional, rational person, the next logical step would be to inquire if his emotions have the ability to drive his actions. At least one scene suggests they do. Immediately after meeting the Weird Sisters and hearing their prophecy, Ross addresses Macbeth with the title ‘Thane of Cawdor.’ Surprised, Macbeth replies, “The Thane of Cawdor lives; why do you dress me in borrow'd robes?” (1:3:108-109). Here, one sees that Macbeth still has the ability to connect emotions with actions and speech. One can surmise that Shakespeare was making a philosophical assertion that what makes a normal human (e.g. the Macbeth of early scenes) is the dialogue between mind and body, emotion and action.

It follows that the disintegration of the body/soul connection signals the end of one’s humanity. In the later parts of the play, Macbeth has become a tragic hero who has lost his ability to feel emotions. For example, when told that Lady Macbeth is dead he says listlessly: “She should have died hereafter” (5:5:19). He also confesses that “I have almost forgot the taste of tears” (5:5:10). Crying exemplifies the connection between mind and body that define normal humanity; one feels, and tears emerge. If Macbeth cannot cry, or no longer has sensory perception, he has clearly become an abnormal – or ‘weird’ – human.

Others have described other traits –among them ambition, unwillingness to let fate run its course, and depravity – as Macbeth’s tragic flaw. These arguments have some merit, but certain statements disprove them. For example, Macbeth states: “If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me, without my stir” (1:3:143-144). Here it is clear that he surrenders to fate and does not want to ‘stir,’ suggesting a lack of ambition, not a surplus of it. Also, Macbeth is portrayed in the first act as a feeling and heroic man – hardly a fundamentally evil character. Thus one must surmise that Macbeth’s tragic flaw did not exist, or was dormant, at the beginning of the play; rather, something changed that created or made evident that flaw. That change was his becoming ‘weird.’

Two main external influences catalyzed Macbeth’s change: the weird sister’s prophecy and Lady Macbeth’s manipulations. Obviously, had the weird sisters never prophesied Macbeth’s impending kingship Lady Macbeth would have never pressured Macbeth to commit murder. Appropriately she enters immediately after Macbeth says, “I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent” (1:7:25-26) – she becomes that “spur” through direct and indirect verbal assaults that hasten Macbeth’s emotional disintegration. Through attacks on Macbeth’s masculinity and trustworthiness, Lady Macbeth encourages him to act without thinking: “I would, while it was smiling in my face, have pluck'd my nipple from his boneless gums, and dash'd the brains out, had I so sworn as you have done to this” (1:7:56-59). She also works subtly on Macbeth, not acknowledging him as her husband until after he kills Duncan: “My husband!” (2:2:13), she finally cries. This emotional manipulation successfully snuffs Macbeth’s emotions and allows him to act without feeling; that is, without his humanity.

Through Macbeth, Shakespeare makes the case that being human is not merely physical; rather, to be human one must also have emotions and that anything less makes one ‘weird.’ With Macbeth’s tragic flaw Shakespeare probes the gray area between biology and philosophy. Although an explicit discussion of this connection does not arise in the play, Macbeth’s tragic flaw does provide insight into how one can avoid departing this world a “dead butcher” (5:8:70), one who has lost his emotions and thus his humanity.

The concept of virtu is central to Machiavellian political theory in The Prince. The problematic nature of this term makes a concise definition difficult to formulate. Varying definitions often lead to different interpretations of Machiavelli. In order to understand the implications of Machiavelli's writing it is important to explore this concept and how it shapes his political theory. This essay will be divided into two parts. The first will deal with the definition of virtu and an examination of all the ideas that are included in this term. Examples of historical and contemporary counterparts will be investigated and compared to the Machiavellian model. Next, the implications of this idea on Machiavelli's political theory will be discussed in detail.

Before beginning the examination of the term virtu it is first necessary to explain the context of this essay with regard to The Prince. Many scholars have suggested that The Prince was written with a less than obvious intent. At face value it appear to be no more than a manual for ruling, written in hope that Machiavelli might find employment with the Medici family. A different interpretation sees the text as a offer of bad advice, or at the very least ambiguous advice, written with the intention of bringing down the Medici family that had left Machiavelli banished from the city he loved and destitute. Both interpretations are accepted as possibilities, however for our uses we will be taking The Prince at face value and assume his advice is given in earnest. If it were the case that he was writing with less than truthful intent it would dramatically change the context of his virtu. The unscrupulous, deceitful and vicious activities required of proper statesmanship, according to Machiavelli, can be regarded as a scheme for a ruler's downfall.

The Prince deals with the various questions of policy as they pertain to new ruler, or one taking control of a new territory. From this context the idea of virtu emerges. Virtu is a collection of characteristics that make a ruler great. The tides of fortune (fortuna) can wash away any ruler with ease. The ruler who possesses Machiavelli's virtu, while not completely free from the possible negative effects of fortune, is in far better position to deal with whatever may arise.

Virtu must not be confused with the modern concept of virtue. Machiavellian virtu differs greatly from the present moral model commonly associated with virtuosity. Similarly most historical interpretations of virtue do not agree with Machiavelli.

Christian virtue, once described by Nietche as "slave morality" has very little in common with Machiavellian virtu . The Christian version includes characteristics such as meekness, humility, charity, piety, and forgiveness. None of these ideas are present in Machiavelli's princely virtue (virtu). While not an outright atheist, Machiavelli was far from a religious man and held a certain distain for the Catholic Church. He never voices these views and pays respect to the power of religion in his writings, since it would be the equivalent of political suicide to do otherwise, but a secular air does surround his writings.

The Platonic model of virtue is similarly out of sync with Machiavelli's virtu. The emphasis on truth and justice that characterizes Platonic virtue is nowhere to be found in Machiavelli's conception . Similarly, Roman virtue, which places the highest importance on honesty and honor, is a poor equivalent to virtu .

From this one could make the argument that Machiavelli is amoral, or without a moral code. This is not the case. A moral code is defined as a set of standards, by reference to which conduct can be praised or criticized . Machiavelli is very vocal in his praise and condemnation of various courses of action.

We have examined what virtu is not, now we will move on to clarifying what this term does mean. If Christian, Platonic and Roman conceptions of virtue do not equate to Machiavelli's princely virtue, what then can we use to help clarify this troubling concept?

The answer lies in the heroic ideas of virtue present in writings of Homer. The Homeric version of virtue found in Illiad and Odyssey is far more in tune with virtu. Emphasis is placed not on truth, justice, and similar concepts. Instead the hero is required to be an ingenious survivor, sacrificing all with self-preservation as the only goal. Where other models of virtue fail to measure up to Machiavelli's, the Homeric characteristics of virtue are more closely related.

The linguistic grounding of the term virtu is not without relevance. Virtu is derived from, but not exactly related to the Italian word virtus. Formed from the root vir, which means man, or more precisely free male citizens, virtus refers to the characteristics displayed in the free male citizen class when fulfilling roles and obligations . In this sense only the vir aspect is truly applicable.

Contemporaries of Machiavelli have also utilized the term virtu. D'Vinci used this term with a strictly scientific definition. He used it to designate, in a physical sense, motive power . Another connotation of the term, and most widely used is found within the medical community of the Italian Renaissance . This form of the word describes the vitality giving force upon which the life and strength of all organisms rely. Some authors have suggested an echo of this medicinal grounding in Machiavelli's use of the term. A letter written some years later refers to a king who has recently recovered from illness as having "his virtu once again become strong". Despite any evidence and similarities very little importance has been attached to this theory.

The use of this term in The Prince is widespread and includes numerous connotations. No one word can properly express the idea, and the long list of variations makes applying the term difficult. The result is an array of different possible interpretations in each instance of its use.Some Ideas within the term virtu are desirable in a modern sense. Intellect is a key aspect of the concept. A ruler should be knowledgeable and utilize this knowledge in the affairs of his state. A keen intellect will aid a ruler in search of greatness while ignorance will allow for misfortune and poor decisions. History should be studied rigorously and the actions of great men mimicked. A smart ruler has advantages in all respects of political life. Confidence also plays a role in the formulation of virtu:

"I do think, however, that it is better to be headstrong than cautious, for fortune is a lady. It is necessary, if you want to master her, to beat and strike her. And one sees she more often submits to those who act boldly than those who proceed in a calculating fashion."

A proper ruler will be sure of himself and command the respect of those below him. Machiavelli gives the example of Maximilian who often undoes his decrees after they meet criticism. The result is no one knows what his intentions are, and his decisions are unreliable. Talent, intelligence and confidence are all required by Machiavelli if a ruler is to possess virtu.

Machiavelli also demands that his ruler of virtu be pragmatic. He must be prepared for every circumstance and able to apply his knowledge to whatever endeavors he embarks upon. He must be attentive to those around him and weigh their opinions wisely taking into account all that may be gained and lost for each party involved. Attention should always be paid to activities abroad as they may affect the state or convey useful information. The ruler must be alert and perceptive as people may plot against in a bid for power. Decisiveness play a role as well. Uncertainty is unacceptable for a ruler and shows weakness. This pragmatism will serve the ruler well in times of crises and help to ensure his reign is long.

This brings us to the negative moral aspects of Machiavelli's virtu. These beliefs led to his fall from popularity as they portrayed him as a tyrant with little heed for so-called moral imperatives. While Machiavelli believes that whenever possible the upstanding road should be taken, there are situations that may require that a leader set aside traditional morality in favor of cunning and trickery.

The example of Agathocles, who made bold and deceitful moves to gain sole possession of power, such as the slaughter of Syracuse's senators and richest citizens, gains praise from Machiavelli:

"He was the son of a potter, and from start to finish lived a wicked life; nevertheless his wicked behavior testified to so much strength (virtu) of mind and body...there seems to be no reason why he should be judged less admirable than any of the finest generals."

Although Agathocles receives praise from Machiavelli, the evilness of his character does garner much deserved attention:

"...his inhuman cruelty and brutality, and his innumerable wicked actions, mean it would be wrong to praise him as one of the finest men."

He distinction between being a good general and being a good man is clear. Positions of power sometimes require of men actions, which under other circumstance would not gain you praise.

Circumstance seems to be the main determinant of whether wicked actions are to be employed or not. A ruler must be able to act against his good nature if it is required of him:

"For anyone who wants to act the part of the good man in all circumstances will bring about his own ruin, for those he has to deal with will not all be good. So it is necessary for a ruler, if he wants to hold onto power, to learn how not to be good, and to know when it is and when it is not necessary to use this knowledge."

Machiavelli is all too aware that sometimes wickedness will profit a ruler far more than acts that are supposedly virtuous:

"Above all do not be upset if you are supposed to have those vices a ruler needs if he is going to stay securely in power, for, if you think about it you will realize there are some ways of behaving that are supposedly virtuous, but would lead to your downfall, and others that are supposed to be wicked, but will lead to your welfare and peace of mind."

Integrity and truth have always been praised as characteristics of great men. However, careful observation has taught Machiavelli that in affairs of power and statecraft the honest man is not necessarily the one to mimic:

"Everybody recognizes how praiseworthy it is for a ruler to keep his word and live a life of integrity, without relying on craftiness. Nevertheless, we see that in practice, in these days, those rulers have thought it not important to keep their word have achieved great things, and have known how to employ cunning to confuse and disorientate other men. In the end they have been able to overcome those who have placed great store in integrity."

Virtu has little to do with justice and more to do with opportunism. Traits that are virtuous for the everyday citizen do not apply to princely virtu. A Ruler, due to his position in a society, is subject different standards.

It is due to Machiavelli's distain for the masses that he acknowledges the ruler must be above common morality:

"They are ungrateful, fickle, deceptive and deceiving, avoider of danger, eager to gain. They promise you their blood, their possessions, their lives, and their children, as I have said before, so long as you seem to have no need of them. But as soon as you need help, they turn against you."

If people were not so wicked and undesirable things would be different. However the nature of man, as Machiavelli sees it does not allow for traditional virtue:

"So you see a wise ruler cannot, and should not, keep his word when doing so is to his disadvantage, and when the reasons that led him to promise to do so no longer apply. Of course, if all men were good, this advice would be bad: but since men are wicked and will not keep faith with you, you need not keep faith with them."

It is now clear how the concept of princely virtue differs with traditional notions of virtue. How then does this conception of virtu affect Machiavelli's political theory? The answer is that virtu shapes almost all aspects of Machiavelli's formulations and dominates the text of The Prince. From the preeminence of military power and strategy in a ruler's life to theories of which type of ruler is the most suited to overcoming the force of fortune, virtu takes front seat in almost all of Machiavelli's discussions.

Perhaps the most important aspect of virtu and its relation to political power, according to The Prince, is military superiority. In fact, Machiavelli suggests this be the sole area of concern for a ruler:

"A ruler, then, should have no other concern, no other thought, should pay attention to nothing aside from war, military institutions, and the training of his soldiers...It is of such importance that military prowess not only keeps those who have been born rulers in power, but also often enables men who have been born private citizens to come to power."

While this may be a slight overstatement, this section is written to impress upon the reader the importance of military strength. Machiavelli does address non-military issues in his text, but none are given the high regard that issues of war receive.

Another issue discussed in The Prince is the nature of rule and the role virtu plays in bringing one to power. Rulers may come to power in different ways some, such as ecclesiastical rulers, are chosen amongst a group of like minded men. These rulers face little challenges as their assumed relationship with God prevents ill from coming to them. Similarly. Rulers who are in power based upon Birthright don't face many challenges, as they are often seen as figureheads, and expectations for them are usually low. The Citizen ruler, however, who gains power through good fortune or of his own virtu, faces the most challenges. In these circumstances the ruler must rely on his virtu to remain in power. Those who were cast into the role of ruler based on the good graces of fortune, without continued luck, will quickly fall from power.

It is the ruler who has struggled his way to power, overcoming obstacles and gaining experience, that possess virtu. He is the most skillful ruler yet must contend with the fiercest opposition. He must rely on his wits and strength to both woo, andcontrol the masses, crushing any opposition where he sees fit. While wickedness may be appropriate and acceptable in order to achieve goals and where it is necessary, extended use of cruel means will create a hateful populace who resents your rule. He must manipulate or, if completely necessary, liquidate the elite in order to ensure his position is safe. A strong military is the most important thing to consider, composed of native troops due to the unreliability of mercenaries and auxiliaries. He must be self-sufficient relying on himself alone, save a few well-paid and trustworthy advisors. The ruler who has gain his position through virtu alone faces the most challenges, but is the most capable to handle them.

Machiavelli's position on boastful generosity is negative. As he sees it, it will only drain resources, and while a reputation may aid new rulers, those settled should ignore any discomfort from being regarded as a miser. Generosity can be misplaced and often enriches your enemies while harming your wealth. It is preferable to have your population to fear you rather than love you, if both aren't possible:

"...as far as being feared and loved is concerned, since men decide for themselves whom they love, and rulers decide whom they fear, a wise ruler should rely on the emotion he can control, not on the one he cannot. But he must take care not to be hated..."

Machiavelli also advises to garner a reputation. He notes that rulers who undertake great tasks command the respect of their public and military. Public loyalty, however, is always subordinate to military loyalty. The military ensures security, and although the public is powerful and should not be abuse, it is of the utmost importance that the military remains under control. The leader who possess virtu is regarded with fear and awe by his public and respected by his military. Rulers who avoid war and are unwilling to enter into disputes are soon disposed of by other bolder leaders. A ruler should admire talent and skill and honor those who excel in all fields. At appropriate times he should lift the spirits of his people with festivals to gain admiration. While he is not required to be honest at all times, he must demand it of his advisors and avoid flattery.

It is clear that the concept of virtu plays a fundamental role in shaping Machiavellian political theory. Primarily concern with the politics of power and warfare, The Prince expresses in detail how important virtu is to a ruler. Strength, cunning, confidence, intelligence, and pragmatism are central to virtu and the primary source of Machiavelli's. While many societies have had models of virtue few can be equated with Machiavellian virtu. Sometimes viewed as a manual for tyranny, The Prince is a survival guide for the 16 century Italian ruler.

Bibliographical Information

Ball, T. "The Picaresque Prince" Political Theory 12:4 1984 pg 521-536

Gilbert, F. "On Machiavelli's Idea of Virtu" Renaissance News 4:4 1957 pg 53-56

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Machiavelli, N. "The Prince" Hackett Publishing Co., Indianapolis: 1995

Machiavelli's The Prince is an ambitious attempt to outline the steps necessary to ensuring success in leadership. The work dissects the elements of power; it identifies the sources from which it springs and the tactics required for its maintenance. His position rests on the claim that power is "acquired either through the arms of others or with one's own, either by fortune or virtue" (Ch. 1, pg. 6), and he asserts that success in politics cannot exist outside of this basic framework. Centuries later, the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. would rise from the masses as a leader, armed only with the candor of his objectives and their means. King is generally accepted by those who are familiar with his career in politics as a successful leader - one who's ends were steadily achieved through the perserverence of his spirit and the support of his people. Yet Machiavelli states plainly that "all the armed prophets conquered, and the unarmed ones were ruined" (Ch.6, pg. 24). Machiavelli's failure to account for the success of a leader as antithetical to his beliefs as King betrays a fundamental flaw in the former's reasoning. Machiavelli's understanding of true leadership and success is limited; he is short-sighted in assuming that all power must be absolute power, and fails to acknowledge that the oppressed and the great can ofttimes converge to strive toward an end greater than mere material acquistion.

King manifests none of the qualities Machiavelli identifies as virtuous. Rather than relying on cunning and ingenuity to manipulate or eliminate his adversaries and constituents, King achieves his goals "openly, lovingly...with a willingness to accept the penalty" (pg.294). Machiavelli would then assert that his rise would necessarily have to be precipitated by fortune. As he states, "the result of becoming a prince from private individual presupposes either virtue or fortune" (Ch. 6, pg. 22). Yet again, King neither relies on his own wealth, nor is he funded by any outside party throughout the entire duration of his career. And he certainly does not invoke the use of arms. King's basic guideline for response is "non-violent direct action." King emerges from the people as a leader, which at once distinguishes him from any of Machiavelli's princes. According to Machiavelli, the interests of the governed are only important insofar as they affect the governor's ability to lead. King however, rather than using the backs of the people as stepping stones, takes their burden on his shoulders and brings then to the forefront of public attention. Thus he is loved by the people he leades. Machiavelli warns leaders against this supposed danger. According to him, love can only be maintained through the continous expenditure of the leader on his people, their affections are bought. Yet, as he states," friendships that are acquired at a price...are bought, but they are not owned and when the time comes cannot be spent...Love is held by a chain of obligation, which, because men are wicked, is broken at every opportunity for their own utility"(Ch. 17, pg. 66-67). However, the esteem King's followers hold him in is different from that which Machiavelli warns leaders of; its perpetuation is not dependant on generosity and the doling out of material goods. King inspires a sort of love that is unconditionlal because it is based on intangibles. It is a genuine appreciation for the efforts and leadership provided by one of their own. When a leader such as King undertakes the struggle for such intangible conditions as justice and freedom, and for the exclusive benefit of the poplulace, he becomes endeared to the people, and thus gains a fortune that Machiavelli fails to identify: the undying, unconditional support of the masses.

As these two types of leaders originate from two opposite ends of the social spectrum, their views on fundamental elements of politics also differ drastically. Machiavelli and King differ almost antithetically in their views on positive law. To the prince, laws are but tools used to control the masses, not codes by which leaders must themselves abide. Furthermore, the existence of laws allows a means by which the Prince can both impress and terrify the populace through the callous breaking of them. The ability to transcend law makes the prince an awesome and powerful image to the people. King, on the other hand, holds laws in the highest possible respect: "In no sense do I advocate evading or defying the law...an individual who breaks a law his conscience tells him is unjust, and willingly accepts the penalty...is in reality expressing the very highest respect for the law" (pg.294). King endeavors only to break unjust laws after carefully examining whether they truly ought to be broken. He operates within the bouds of the law, establishing himself further as a man of the people.

The most fundamental difference however, lies in each man's definition of success, their ultimate end. To Machiavelli, the prince himself is his own end. Machiavelli's ultimate goal is to find the means of securing stability throught the entire region of italy, and ensure its security. He believes this is only accomplished through the establishment of a powerful absolute sovereign. Thus, he guides his prince to use fortune and virtue to look out for himself at all costs, so as to rise above all obstacles to achieve total power. This definition of success is measured largely in material acquisition; the prince is to acquire and maintain control over a body of land, and it is the essence of his nature to do so: "...it is a very natural and ordinary thing to acquire, and always, when men do it who can, they will be praised or not blamed" (Ch.3, pg. 14). In such a political atmosphere, the prince operates alone: all others with any ambition toward leadership are but competitors after the same set of acquireable goods, and any objectors to his methods are obstacles to his goals. Thus rivals are eliminated and the people are terrified or manipulated into silence. To King, however, the people are an end in themself. According to him, "law and order exist for the purpose of establishing justice" (pg. 295), so that the people may enjoy the highest degree of happiness in a society that treats all men as equal. He fights to bring justice and equality to the most oppressed sector of the population, and his success is measured by intangibles: the exposure of injustice, and the establishment of a "substance-filled positive peace" in which his people are recognized as equal members of society; in other words: justice. King's end is entirely outside of himself, he is but an agent of and for the people; any ideas of personal gain are subjugated to the benefit of the greater good. By this definition, and through the knowledge of all that he did accomplish, Martin Luther King Jr. was indeed successful.

Machiavelli's problem lies in that he identifies but two humors: "the people desire neither to be commanded nor oppressed by the great, and the great desire to command and oppress the people"(Ch.9, pg.39). From this conflict of interests stems the constant state of distrust between leaders and their people.

However, Machiavelli does not presuppose any condition in which the people might wish to work in harmony with a leader; namely, that instance in which a leader promises to rescue the oppressed from further injustice at the hands of the great. In such a case, the people do in fact desire to be commanded by a leader who does not ultimately wish to oppress them. King is the prime example of such a case. His end was genuine, just, and for the people, and the willing masses provided enough reinforcement even in the absence of fortune and Machiavellian virtue, that as an unarmed prophet he was able to succeed.

Table of contents

1. Speed, Cost, and Quality
2. Not Beneficial For All
3. Usability of Machine Learning
4. Humans Can Be Better Creative
5. Intelligent Technologies

Machine Learning In HROver the last ten years, there have been many talks about big data as well as machine learning in HR. Are they overhyped? Well, we are just looking at the tip of the iceberg. In the HR world, things used to be super easy. In earlier days, HR’s primary duties were recorded maintenance and payroll. Over time other functions such as employee training, uniformity, and well-being were added to their tasks. Later on, recruitment and skilled workforce selection were added to their duties. Today, Human Resource Management (HRM) is presuming a more critical role than ever before. These days, not just that they are responsible for all the tasks mentioned, but they are also responsible for motivating the employee, well-being, and workforce development as well. The HR groups have more data at their fingertips than ever before. They are actively attempting to align individual target with the corporate goals and objectives.

Furthermore, strategic HRM focuses on actions that differentiate the organization from its competitors and aims to make a long-term impact on the success of the organization. Data and decision-making based on data, is gradually becoming more crucial. In recent times, an organization not only have the traditional roles but they also expertise in areas such as data science, data visualization, and machine learning. So yes, the HR data age is just beginning. In the data-driven world era - where everything is being calculated and decided based on numbers, figures, and facts – it is impossible for humans to understand and entirely interpret it. That has resulted in the introduction of Machine Learning to study the improved analytics models. Industrial robots, human-made intelligence, and machine learning are developing gradually at a steady pace, and people are bothered about their jobs. This brings the question of utmost importance, will robots take over the human jobs rendering them useless or a symbiotic association between robots and humans is possible?

Speed, Cost, and Quality

The advent of improved robotics and enhanced AI has increased the speed, quality, and cost of available goods and services while becoming a part of many businesses. This has resulted in many companies operating with a few numbers of workers. They have been designed to understand more human cognitive functions and with great ability to perform with more human-like possibilities. Automation has reduced the number of employed workers, along with the cost, needed to produce per unit of goods, products, or services – which extensively increases the demand.

For instance; the adoption of an assembly line by Henry Ford reduced the cost of cars and prices, and in turn increasing the demand for them and the employees building them. It is believed that increasing productivity and lowering rates will raise workers’ wages.

Not Beneficial For All

Automation will not make everyone benefit from it, and some workers will be displaced, and others(technicians or engineers) will derive more profit out of it. Automation will increase a range of newer tasks; which the machines cannot perform. Some experts warn of a staggering lack of employment, while others believe that it will create unique job categories for displaced workers. It is expected that in specific areas machines will replace humans, wherein others they will accommodate each other. There are also people from the panel of an expert who says that automation will not affect human employment and they will also work in a friendly relationship in the future.

Usability of Machine Learning

A lot of factories and warehouses now make use of robots that are relatively mobile, versatile and not too costly like their previous generations. Baxter, a robot designed in the USA, can take care of various tasks like loading and packaging – and costs around $25,000. Not just manual works but white-collar jobs are widely expected to be at risk from automation too. Quill, another robot designed by Narrative Science, can crunch data and create reports in a highly streamlined method. IBM’s Watson computer is giving medical experts some challenge with its ability to sift through medical histories, symptoms, and the most recent research to deliver diagnoses and suggest possible treatments. However, it is still time for robots to enhance their diagnostic capabilities and empathy – so, for now, they are working together by helping the doctors make the faster diagnosis.

Humans Can Be Better Creative

Optimists are believed to be in favor of automation because they think it will free up humans from the tasks to spend more time towards creative and mindful activities. The touch of personal interaction; such as empathy for patients, critical financial advice, and personalized expertise, etc. will never get out of human hands to automated machines. Any repetitive process is likely to be automated, while anything that requires an extensive analytical level and better articulation will stay with us. It is understood that humans will have to upgrade their ante of skills to outlive their posts by leveraging the technology in their favor.

Intelligent Technologies

There is potential for smart technologies to augment and boost our jobs rather than replace them. For instance; Bank tellers have successfully reduced their time-spend on money responsibilities and are now using the same to provide relationship-based operations to bank customers. We have to invest our time and money in gathering skills that cannot only save our jobs but also perform well against the robots. We humans will have to provide a range of options proving our utility to future-proof our jobs. We have to improve and add more strategic skills to hyper-specialize in our areas of expertise to get the better of the machines and work in an improved symbiotic environment. Businesses will need to get out of their comfort zones to build a perfect human-machine relationship for their longevity and more significant productivity.

Machine learning is a subfield of computer science that evolved from the study of pattern recognition and computational learning theory in artificial intelligence. Machine learning explores the construction and study of algorithms that can learn from and make predictions on data. Such algorithms operate by building a model from example inputs in order to make data-driven predictions or decisions: 2 rather than following strictly static program instructions.

Machine learning is closely related to and often overlaps with computational statistics; a discipline that also specializes in prediction-making. It has strong ties to mathematical optimization, which deliver methods, theory and application domains to the field. Machine learning is employed in a range of computing tasks where designing and programming explicit algorithms is infeasible.

Example applications include spam filtering, optical character recognition (OCR), search engines and computer vision. Machine learning is sometimes conflated with data mining, although that focuses more on exploratory data analysis. Machine learning and pattern recognition “can be viewed as two facets of the same field.”

When employed in industrial contexts, machine learning methods may be referred to as predictive analytics or predictive modelling. In 1959, Arthur Samuel defined machine learning as a “Field of study that gives computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed”. Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition: “A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks Tand performance measure P, if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E”.

This definition is notable for its defining machine learning in fundamentally operational rather than cognitive terms, thus following Alan Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" that the question “Can machines think?" be replaced with the question “Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?"

Types of Problems and Tasks

Machine learning tasks are typically classified into three broad categories, depending on the nature of the learning “signal” or “feedback” available to a learning system. These are:

• Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a “teacher”, and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs.
• Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end.
• Reinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle), without a teacher explicitly telling it whether it has come close to its goal or not.

Another example is learning to play a game by playing against an opponent. Between supervised and unsupervised learning is semi supervised learning, where the teacher gives an incomplete training signal: a training set with some (often many) of the target outputs missing. Transduction is a special case of this principle where the entire set of problem instances is known at learning time, except that part of the targets are missing. Among other categories of machine learning problems, learning to learn learns its own inductive bias based on previous experience. Developmental learning, elaborated for robot learning, generates its own sequences (also called curriculum) of learning situations to cumulatively acquire repertoires of novel skills through autonomous.

A support vector machine is a classifier that divides its input space into two regions, separated by a linear boundary. Here, it has learned to distinguish black and white circles. Self-exploration and social interaction with human teachers, and using guidance mechanisms such as active learning, maturation, motor synergies, and imitation. Another categorization of machine learning tasks arises when one considers the desired output of a machine learned system.

• In classification, inputs are divided into two or more classes, and the learner must produce a model that assigns unseen inputs to one (or multi-label classification)or more of these classes. This is typically tackled in a supervised way. Spam filtering is an example of classification, where the inputs are email(or other) messages and the classes are “spam” and “not spam”.
• In regression, also a supervised problem, the outputs are continuous rather than discrete.
• In clustering, a set of inputs is to be divided into groups. Unlike in classification, the groups are not known beforehand, making this typically an unsupervised task.
• Density estimation finds the distribution of inputs in some space.
• Dimensionality reduction simplifies inputs by mapping them into a lower-dimensional space. Topic modeling is a related problem, where a program is given a list of human language documents and is tasked to find out which documents cover similar topics.

History and Relationships to Other Fields

As a scientific endeavour, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence. Already in the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed "neural networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to be reinventions of the generalized linear models of statistics. Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis.

However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation. By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor. Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval.

Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI/CS field, as "connectionism", by researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield, Rumelhart and Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of back propagation. Machine learning, reorganized as a separate field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics and probability theory. It also benefited from the increasing availability of digitized information, and the possibility to distribute that via the internet. Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly. They can be roughly distinguished as follows:

• Machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data.
• Data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously)unknown properties in the data. This is the analysis step of Knowledge Discovery in Databases.

Its wonderful setting, its many fine built temples and different sectors and terraces on top of a quite vertical mountain ridge make a visit to Machu Picchu an unforgettable experience. At this point, we must ask two questions.

What was the aim of building Machu Picchu?

Although we do not have the details of its past, we can assume that its primary functions were those of an administrative centre for the production of the crops grown on its steep terraces and, at the same time, a religious centre dedicated to the gods upon whom its inhabitants believed their existence depended: The God of Water and Mother Earth, or Pachamama, and the Sun.

With other agrarian centres in the Vilcabamba region, Machu Picchu must have been conceived within the context of a huge state project, the object of which was the extension of agricultural activity into the Amazonian Andes. This hypothesis is based on the fact that in Peru land suitable for agriculture is scarce, both in the highlands and coastal Andes. Since the dawn of Andean civilisations, soils have proven insufficient while the population was growing which was common with all ancient societies that lived on agriculture. Another factor: the El Niño phenomenon, has always affected food production in Peru and brought hunger to people, which regularly unleashes periods of drought and flooding, as well as other meteorological calamities. It was believed that such catastrophes could only be prevented through magical-religious practices, thus, they always wanted to be very close to the sun and other things they worshipped.

Why did they abandon it?

There are several hypotheses trying to explain why such an extraordinary place could be suddenly abandoned, although it was never discovered by the Spanish invaders.

With European irruption and the destruction of the Inca state, Machu Picchu and other Inca sites in the area were probably abandoned as its inhabitants were recruited by Manco Inca and his succesors from 1536 to 1572, to offer resistance to Spanish domination.

They might have sought refuge in the more distant Vilcabamba region, in the river basins of Vilcabamba. We have historical evidence to back up this hypothesis, since such forced recruitments used to happen in similar areas, where the whole population followed Manco Inca.

The abandonment of Machu Picchu can also be explained with the death of Pachacutec and the construction of a new ‘royal estate’ for the next Inca. Other experts claim that the city’s water supply may have dried up. The truth about these vital questions will probably remain a mystery forever. The only thing we can do is to visit and get charmed by this amazing structure.

Macro and Micro View Network Security Management: Organizations need a holistic view of their network. With disparate vendor devices and hosts, security teams need a normalized, comprehensive view of the network, including: routing rules, access rules, NAT, VPN, etc.; hosts, including all products (and versions), services, vulnerabilities, and patches; and assets, including asset groupings and classifications. With a comprehensive view of the network, security teams can view hosts in the network, as well as configurations, classifications and other pertinent information. A network map or model is both a useful visualization tool and a diagnostic tool, providing analysis that is only possible when considering an overall view. For example, security and compliance teams can use this macro view to see how data would move between points on the network.

Although the macro view is needed to see how all the pieces of the network fit together, network administrators must also be able to drill down into the details for a particular device, easily accessing information on rules, access policies, and configuration compliance. And this information must be considered within the framework of the broader network, including context such as segments or zones, routing, routers, switches, intrusion prevention systems (IPS), and firewalls.

The network components that impact the device will undoubtedly come from various vendors, creating data of different vendor languages that must be deciphered, correlated, and optimized to allow administrators to streamline rule sets. Daily or weekly reviews of all devices on the network is unattainable with a manual process, and reviewing device configurations less frequently puts network security and compliance at risk. Automating policy compliance helps ensure compliance and consistency, and preserves IT resources. Ideally, a network modeling tool that provides a macro view should also allow administrators to drill down into a micro view of each device, providing information on users, applications, vulnerabilities, and more. This allows administrators to see the broader network view and then focus in on particular devices for management.

Create Usage Policy Statements: Creating usage policy statements that outline users' roles and responsibilities with regard to security. You can start with a general policy that covers all network systems and data within the company. This document should provide the general user community with an understanding of the security policy, its purpose, guidelines for improving their security practices, and definitions of their security responsibilities. Create an administrator acceptable use statement to explain the procedures for user account administration, policy enforcement, and privilege review. If your company has specific policies concerning user passwords or subsequent handling of data, clearly present those policies as well. Check the policy against the partner acceptable use and the user acceptable use policy statements to ensure uniformity. Make sure that administrator requirements listed in the acceptable use policy are reflected in training plans and performance evaluations.

Policy development is focused on establishing and reviewing security policies for the company. At a minimum, review both the risk analysis and the security policy on an annual basis. Practice is the stage during which the security team conducts the risk analysis, the approval of security change requests, reviews security alerts from both vendors and the mailing list, and turns plain language security policy requirements into specific technical implementations.

The last area of responsibility is response. While network monitoring often identifies a security violation, it is the security team members who do the actual troubleshooting and fixing of such a violation. Each security team member should know in detail the security features provided by the equipment in his or her operational area.

Conduct a Risk Analysis: A risk analysis should identify the risks to your network, network resources, and data. The intent of a risk analysis is to identify portions of your network, assign a threat rating to each portion, and apply an appropriate level of security. This helps maintain a workable balance between security and required network access.

Assign each network resource one of the following three risk levels:

1. Low-level Risk Systems: The data that is compromised would not disrupt the business or cause legal or financial ramifications. The targeted system or data can be easily restored and does not permit further access to other systems.
2. Medium level Risk Systems: The data that is compromised would cause a moderate disruption in the business, legal or financial ramification or provide further access to other systems. The targeted system or data requires a moderate effort to restore or the restoration process is disruptive to the system.
3. High-level Risk Systems: The data that is compromised would cause an extreme disruption in the business, cause major legal or financial ramifications, or threaten the health and safety of a person. The targeted system or data requires significant effort to restore or the restoration process is disruptive to the business or other systems.

Throughout the United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright’s speech to the graduating female class of Mount Holyoke College, she elaborates upon how she used her knowledge and education to benefit more than herself. She covers a wide variety of topics such as nuclear weapons, women’s role in society, and the ramifications of perseverance through her use of diction, evidence, and repetition. Albright shares her experiences and the changes she’s made in countries all around the world to show that the graduates have the potential to do the same. She sheds light upon how these women should not stop impacting the world around them just because they have graduated.

One of the first topics Albright addresses in her speech is concerning the impact nuclear weapons have on society. She uses her knowledge of the type of audience she is speaking to to her advantage by describing the weapons as “child-maiming (19).” This brutish use of diction was chosen specifically because she knew she would be presenting to future mothers and how it would grab their attention for the rest of her lecture. She also made sure to incorporate the juxtaposition of nuclear weapons and children to heighten the emotions of her crowd. Albright also includes how “because of U.S. leadership, nuclear weapons no longer target our homes (15-16),” and how “we could relax (16),” but digresses on to explain how she is involved with helping to ban nuclear weapons forever. Doing so supports her opinion on the topic by revealing to her audience of women that just because residents are safe, doesn’t mean the rest of the world is too. If resources, such as U.S. leadership, are available, they should be used to end the use of these barbaric weapons permanently.

She also uses the terminated fighting in Bosnia to support her claim and how they could avoid making sure it never resurfaces, but “instead, we are renewing our commitment, and insisting that the parties meet theirs (22-24).” This statement implies the upcoming movements Albright is behind to guarantee safety in this country. By including this choice in her speech, Albright displays to her audience how seemingly mere actions have the ability to expand and impact society on a greater scale. Moreover, Albright analyzes the status of women throughout history and in today’s society through the use of credible evidence. She includes how women have obtained a substantial amount of rights and how they “could now lower [our] voices and-as some suggest- sit sedately down (38-39).” This statement refers to the obstacles women in the past have had to overcome and it’s society’s duty not to settle. Although women in the U.S. have made considerable changes concerning their rights, many groups of women in other countries do not have that luxury. Albright describes her experiences in Sarajevo, Burundi, Guatemala, and Burma to her audience by explaining how women in these countries are not treated fairly. For example, in Guatemala, Albright “talked to women striving to ensure that their new peace endures and is accompanied by justice and an end to discrimination and abuse (56-59).” This information supports her claim because it provides a model of women from around the world who are exercising what Albright is preaching to her audience . Additionally, Albright discloses “these women have in common a determination to chart their own path (64-65),” and they are using their voices to better the environment around them.

Furthermore, towards the end of her speech, Albright discusses the possible repercussions of the path she has just informed her audience with. Albright concluded four of the last five paragraphs of her speech with the phrase, “and persevere.” By doing so, she is taking the unfavorable events she has just shared with her audience, such as distractions and critics, and reassures that they have the strength to conquer them. Albeit, perseverance is not the easiest thing to achieve, Albright is emphasizing it in her lecture to show how it is imperative when wanting to make a difference in the world. In addition, Albright begins to address her audience as “you” numerous times as she nears the end of her speech. The use of “you” exposes the audience and persuades them into applying her speech to factors of their own lives. This tactic is used to provide a sense of intimacy between the speaker and the listener in order to inflict a lasting impact. Lastly, woven into her speech was the repeated phrase, “we could,” which was then followed by an idle action that she counteracts in the following sentence. One example of this is “we could stop there. Instead, we are pursuing a broader prosperity (32-33).” This quote summarizes her entire speech by parading her theme of the steadfastness women should embody.In conclusion, the choices Albright made in her speech regarding the graduating class of Mount Holyoke College effectively convey her message to the audience by emphasizing the major matters at hand. Her use of diction concerning nuclear weapons dramatically impacts her audience by accentuating the danger they still inflict on society. Albright’s experiences were adequately used to inspire the graduates by providing evidence to show how women from countries around the globe are making their mark. Lastly, the repetition utilized at the end of her lecture highlights the importance of harnessing dynamic potential to transform society. Hence, Albright’s use of diction, evidence, and repetition encapsulates the entirety of the message of perseverance she is trying to propagate.

Works Cited

1. Albright, M. (1997). Speech to the Graduating Class of Mount Holyoke College. Mount Holyoke College. https://www.mtholyoke.edu/marylyon/address.html
2. Albright, M. (2003). Madam Secretary: A Memoir. Miramax Books.
3. Chagnon, C. (2001). Madeleine Albright: A Twentieth-Century Odyssey. Palgrave Macmillan.
4. Dunn, M. A. (2019). Madeleine Albright: First Woman Secretary of State. Enslow Publishing.
5. Elshtain, J. B., & Tobias, S. (Eds.). (2006). Women, Militarism, and War: Essays in History, Politics, and Social Theory. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
6. Harp, D., & Harp, L. (2005). Women Prime Ministers and Presidents: 25 Women Leaders of the World. McFarland.
7. Heymann, P. B. (2000). Gender Equality: Dimensions of Women's Equal Citizenship. Cambridge University Press.
8. Langan, S. (2016). Madeleine Albright: She Speaks for America. Simon & Schuster.
9. McFadden, M. (2006). Madeleine Albright: First Woman Secretary of State. Lerner Publications.
10. Vanden Heuvel, K. (2004). The Secretary: A Journey with Hillary Clinton from Beirut to the Heart of American Power. Picador.

Homeric Epic has become a staple of the modern evaluation of the ancient Greco-Roman world. It is among the great literary works of history, having withstood the tests of time and remaining so widely popular. Whether we believe Homer was an individual, a group, or an evolution of oral tradition, it cannot be argued that any assessment of ancient Greek culture that does not include Homer's works is incomplete. They reflect not only the culture of the time period, but also the specific viewpoints of those who lived during that time. In terms of magical practices, in the works of Homer it seems that magic is used as a device to portray the belief that Gods control the mortal world in terms of physical attributes as well as power, yet when it comes to nonphysical aspects of the world, the Gods leave control in the hands of those who dwell in it. Magic is used as a means of depicting what mortals can control - when it comes to the physical world, war, strength, and power, the Gods decide what outcomes will occur and how they come to be - humans do not practice magic pertaining to such areas. But when magic is practiced, it relates to nonphysical areas of the mortal world, showing that mortals have control of this part of the world they live in. By illustrating this idea, magic is an invaluable element in Homer's works, as it makes the duality of these spheres of control apparent.

However, before one can evaluate magical practices in a literary work, history, or any other paradigm, it is essential to establish some criteria to differentiate magical practices from similar actions or ideas. For the purposes of analyzing magical practices in the works of Homer, the criteria presented by Sir James Frazer in his essentialist approach (also known as the "etic" perspective) seem to be well suited to distinguishing magic from things such as religion or science. Frazer purports other ideas in the essentialist approach, such as taking an outsider's perspective of cultural practices, as well as the relation between magic, religion and science. For the purposes of this analysis, those ideas will be set aside, and only Frazer's ideas regarding what indicates magic will be used. Frazer claims that magic is coercive in nature, meaning that the practitioner controls the forces involved in magic. He also claims that magical forces are impersonal - that there are no personal characteristics or attributes associated with the forces controlled in magic. Compare this to religion, for example, which is supplicative (the practitioner asks for the forces involved to perform something, rather than forcing or controlling them to do it) and personal (the forces have names and personal characteristics, rather than being anonymous).

Specifically in the Iliad and the Odyssey, there are cases that show the difference between magic and religion or other ideas. For example, Chryses prays to Apollo after his daughter is taken by the Achaeans, and Apollo responds by unleashing a plague upon the Achaeans' armies (Iliad, book 1). This is not magic, since the practitioner (Chryses) is acting supplicatively by praying to Apollo, who may not answer, as opposed to acting coercively. He also is summoning a personal force (Apollo) rather than an impersonal one. Another example is Machaon, one of the healers (along with his brother Podalirius) who uses scientific methods to heal wounds, such as surgery or poison removal (Iliad, book 11). The difference between science and magic, according to Frazer, is that science is correct, while magic is not. Yet another instance of non-magical practices is disguise, used repeatedly by Odysseus in the Odyssey. Toward the end of the story he infiltrates his own palace disguised as a beggar (Odyssey, book 17). Though disguise is an impersonal force, the practitioner is not wielding a force coercively; he is simply using his own faculties to disguise himself.

Having established the difference between magic and other forces, we can search the Iliad for examples of human magical practice. The only two characters that can even be considered something close to magical practitioners are Machaon and Calchas. Machaon, as has already been explained, does not practice magic so much as use scientific methods to heal the wounded. Calchas is a prophet of the Achaeans who is proficient in reading bird signs (auspicy) and revealing the will of the Gods (Iliad, book 1). However, auspicy is a form of divination, which at best is arguably a form of magic. It focuses on time, communication, reflection, and intervention - basically terms that reveal that it is focused on time and the gods, meaning that it puts little power in the hands of the practitioner or humans at all. Additionally, auspicy in specific is meant to reveal the will of the Gods. As such, it furthers the idea presented in the Iliad that Gods are in control of the physical world, since the humans are limited to simply trying to divine their will in the outcome of the war. In that sense, there is an utter lack of human magical practice in the Iliad, and those characters closely resembling magical practitioners are simply tools furthering the idea that Gods control physical aspects of the mortal world.

The fact that there is a lack of magical practice in the Iliad indicates that whatever the focal point of the story may be, it involves the Gods' control over that given area. It is simple to see that this focal point is strength and power. The Iliad is a story centered on the importance of raw strength and power. The opening lines of the story invoke the muses to sing of Achilles' rage, thereby making the spotlight of the story one man's wrath and showing that the story centers on physical power (Iliad, book 1). If that does not make it obvious enough that the story centers on physical strength, the fact that the story is about a war should make it apparent that physical power is important in this work. After all, the story is named the Iliad, indicating that it is the story of the war of Ilium, or Troy. Additionally, lengthy descriptions of combat and death are pervasive throughout the poem. Yet another telltale sign of the focus on strength is that the epic piece in this poem is Achilles' shield, representative of close combat (Iliad, book 18). Close combat is, of course, a symbol of strength and raw, physical power. The final sign that the Iliad is a story based around strength is that the victor in the end is Achilles, the strongest of all the warriors. All of these examples prove beyond a shadow of a doubt that the Iliad is focused on the importance of strength.

Keeping in mind that strength is the underlying motif of the Iliad, we can assume that Homer intends to show that there is little human control over physical aspects of the world (mainly strength and power, and additionally life and death). This is strongly supported by the severe lack of magic practiced by humans in the Iliad, especially when contrasted with the Odyssey. Not only is there no magic practiced by humans, all of the power exhibited over life, death, war, and strength seems to be that of the Gods. They (mainly Zeus, Hera, and Athena) are constantly shifting the tides of battle, such as Poseidon's empowerment of the Achaeans (Iliad, book 13), and Hera distracting Zeus to turn the tides of battle in favor of the Achaeans (Iliad, book 14). Another example is Apollo's plague being unleashed on the Achaeans (Iliad, book 1) or his role in the death of Patroclus (Iliad, book 16). Additionally, it should be noted that the strongest mortals, and indeed the strongest one of all, Achilles, are all somehow descendants of the Gods.

All of these point out not only that strength is the focus of the Iliad, but that the Gods are the force that controls that strength. The lack of human influence in this sphere is marked by the lack of magical practice done pertaining to these physical areas, and the immense activity the Gods engage in relating to physical aspects of the world - they change the tides of battle, affect life and death, and decide the fates of the warriors (e.g. Achilles fate to die by Paris' arrow to his heel, Hector's fate to die by Achilles' sword, etc). Perhaps the example most directly exemplifying this message is that Homer writes of how Apollo and Poseidon will destroy the walls erected by the Achaeans in the years following the war (Iliad, book 12). This shows exactly the point that the Gods are in control of the physical aspects of the mortal world - creation, destruction, life, death, strength, and power.

The Odyssey, on the other hand, is a story focusing on an opposing quality - that of cunning. It is filled with disguise, trickery, and clever plans, rather than the combat and feats of strength that are omnipresent in the Iliad. The poem is rife with characters in disguise, such as Athena appearing to Telemachus as Mentes (Odyssey, book 1) or Odysseus dressing as a beggar to avoid recognition (Odyssey, book 17). Cunning often prevails over strength, such as Odysseus' clever tricks defeating the Cyclops Polyphemus' superior strength (Odyssey, book 9). Additionally, the epic piece in this poem is Odysseus' bow, representative of ranged combat (Odyssey, book 21). Close combat, at the time, represented more "cowardly" forms of combat, which of course can be related to cunning and trickery. And just as the strongest man is the victor in the Iliad, the Odyssey's victor is Odysseus, the most cunning man in the story. All of these signs signify that cunning and more cerebral issues are the focus of the Odyssey.

We can connect the focus on cunning in the Odyssey to the constant appearance of human and mortal magic. In contrast to the Iliad and its lack of magic in relation to the physical dominion, the Odyssey is full of magic, directly in relation to the mental, nonphysical dominion. For example, the Siren's song lures sailors to their death by tempting them to approach the rock on which the deadly temptresses live (Odyssey, book 12). This is a perfect example of magic being performed by those within the mortal world, and it is magic that affects the mind, instilling great temptation in the men. Another example is in the land of the lotus-eaters, where the men fall asleep against their will by eating the lotus flowers (Odyssey, book 9), yet another example of magic that indeed affects the mind. Odysseus and his crew travel to the land of the dead by performing certain magical rites (Odyssey, book 11), once again using magic for nonphysical means, in this case to figure out how to make their journey lead them home. One of the most famous female practitioners of magic, Circe, is found in the Odyssey, and she uses magic to transform men into animals, and Odysseus himself uses a substance, moly, to avoid transformation (Odyssey, book 10). This type of magic, though it seems physical in nature, affects the being of these men, and in that sense is a mental force. However, not all of the magic is found in the distant, exotic lands of Odysseus' voyage. On Telemachus' initial journey in the poem, he is in Menelaus' court discussing his father and Helen gives the characters a magical drug to wash away their sadness, named nepenthe (Odyssey, book 4). This is yet another case of magic affecting the mind in the Odyssey.

All of these examples point out two things - first, that the Odyssey is focused on cunning and the mind, and second, that the magical practice found throughout the poem are all related to this same area. It is undeniable that these two are linked, especially since the few situations in which strength prevails in the Odyssey are somehow connected back to the gods. For example, when the souls of the suitors go to the underworld after Odysseus defeats them, the ghosts of Odysseus' heroic comrades all make reference to how the Gods have fated Odysseus' victory (Odyssey, book 24). Additionally, when Odysseus fights the suitors' kin, it is said in the poem that the Gods have fated Odysseus' victory (Odyssey, book 24). Anytime that strength prevails, it is referred to somehow as part of the Gods' plan, and even Poseidon's superior strength prevailing in sending Odysseus all over the seas can be thought of in this same sense.

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Therefore it can be said that the Odyssey contains a great deal of magic practice, which contributes to its focus on the importance of cunning and the mind. As such, it shows that humans and the mortal world itself are in control of issues of the mind. This is in direct contrast with the Iliad, which focuses a great deal on strength and physical aspects of the world; as a result its utter lack of magical practices represents the idea that humans do not have control of the physical world and that it is under the powers of the Gods. The rift between the Iliad and Odyssey shows the belief that the physical world is the dominion of the Gods and that the mental world is under the control of mortals. Magical practices are key in distinguishing this important message in the works of Homer, since their presence helps indicate what was believed to be under the control of mortals themselves. Through analysis of magic, we are able to recognize that this was a belief of that time period, and that it is a clear theme in Homeric Epic.

Magical realism is a truly transformative genre of fiction in which fantastical or mythical elements are blended with realistic ones in order to reveal something about human nature or existence. There have been many writers over the years who have attempted to capture the majesty of the form, but not all have succeeded. There are two in particular, however, who stand out from the rest. Gabriel Garcia Marquez and his story The Most Handsome Drowned Man in the World, and Tim Burton’s film Big Fish, both have underlying points and opinions that are disguised in the elements of fantasy throughout the respective storylines. There are also many human truths in both stories that can be revealed if you simply look past the magical and fantastical elements that disguise them. Both stories are brilliant examples of magical realism; the beautiful form in all its entirety.

The first story, the one portraying the allure of Esteban, shows us something important about human nature. The fact is that sometimes people are so desperate for the “newest thing” that they can develop an ability to overlook certain details about the object (or, in this case, person) they have chosen to pursue. This is evidenced in the story by how so many of the women are willing to leave their husbands in order to make time for tending to Esteban. Then, later, the men whose wives had left them behind come to know and love Esteban as well. As it is said in the story, “there was such truth in his mode of being, that even the most suspicious of men… shuddered to the marrow with the sincerity of Esteban.” This shows the desire of human beings to be in on the latest trends and excitements. But, even when not initially enticed, it is common for people to be drawn in by the excited perspective of others. Overall, the point being made by Marquez is that people, when in pursuit of the latest trend, can become so caught up in their fascination that they forget to use rationality and abandon sound judgement.

Comparatively, the film directed by Burton uses magical realism in a similar way, but the underlying truths are much different. The idea accompanying his film is about how people are often lulled into a sense of security when they stick to the things they are good at, but will ultimately find no gratification from doing so. Norther Winslow, a man Edward Bloom meets during his time spent in the utopian town of Spectre, is a perfect example of this ideal. In a previous life, Norther was an acclaimed and well loved poet, but now, although he believes nothing to have changed, has become a poetic disgrace. When he moves to Spectre, he loses all the talent he used to possess and becomes trapped in a cycle of repetitive poems and words. Although Norther is comfortable in Spectre, he will never be able to improve as a writer until he leaves. The point Burton appears to be making here is that people, by staying in their comfort zone, will gradually forget how to reach beyond it and will ultimately be isolated as the world changes, leaving them behind.

Although the works by Garcia Marquez and Burton stand alone in their illumination of certain human truths, there are also some parallels and connected ideas between them. One of the biggest of these presents the idea that people who are special individuals cause fascination and wonder to arise everywhere they go. By the time they die, these special people have a close following of believers. Taking an example from Marquez’s story, by the time Esteban is finally released back into the sea, he has developed a following of believers whose hearts have been filled with the joyful reality of his existence. In fact, many of the villagers were so moved by him that it was collectively decided they, “would paint the fronts of their houses beautiful colors to eternalize the memory of Esteban.” Similarly, in the film by Burton, the protagonist Edward Bloom lived a life of many adventures and magical friendships. These friends, often times treading the line between the real and unreal, come to love him wholeheartedly. In the last scene, when Edward is carried down to the river, all of his friends are there to send him off right. His death was enough to bring everyone who had ever shared a place in his heart together in one place, unified under the collective admiration of an incredible man. Combined, the stories of Esteban and Edward Bloom show us how a spectacular life is usually the predecessor to a spectacular legacy.

Even while Garcia Marquez and Burton use magical realism in similar ways, the ideas expressed throughout their stories have both conflicting and complementing elements. But Marquez, who uses magical realism to speak on the matter of human desire, and Burton, who uses it to discuss the danger of comfort and the continuance of static living, ultimately meet on common ideological ground. They both seem to believe that the biggest legacies are left by those who live the most impactful and well-connected lives. Overall, the use of magical realism to subtly hint at underlying human truths shows us that things are not always apparent at first glance. Sometimes, it is necessary to take a second look and dig beneath the surface in order to determine what something truly means.