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Image segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple segments and often used to locate objects and boundaries (lines, curves etc.). In this paper, we have proposed image segmentation techniques: Region-based, Texture-based, Edge-based. These techniques have been implemented on dental radiographs and gained good results compared to a conventional technique known as Thresholding based technique. The quantitative results show the superiority of the image segmentation technique over three proposed techniques and conventional technique.

Digital Images are used as one of the most important media for carrying information in the field of computer vision. By image segmentation, we can extract information or objects of images. This information can be used for other functions, for example, human identification, detection of cancerous cells, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images. So the image segmentation is the first step in the image analysis.

Image segmentation is a fundamental step in many areas of computer vision including stereo vision and object recognition. It provides additional information about the contents of an image by identifying edges and regions of similar color and texture while simplifying the image from thousands of pixels to less than a few hundred segments. Additionally, image segmentation has applications separate from computer vision; it is frequently used to aid in isolating or removing specific portions of an image. Image segmentation methods are categorized on the basis of two properties discontinuity and similarity. Methods based on discontinuities are called boundary based methods and methods based on similarity are called Region-based methods. Segmentation is a process that divides an image into its regions or objects that have similar features or characteristics. Mathematically complete segmentation of an image R is a finite set of regions R1…Rs. R = ?i =1 RiRi n Rji?j

The following sections present the study of basic image segmentation called Threshold based and proposed techniques Region-based, Texture-based, Edge-based. These techniques have been tested on dental radiographs to identify similarities like infected teeth. In this paper, these techniques segment the dental image into regions called dental work (DW). The result section provides simulation results of segmentation techniques. Based on source data (area of DW, the distance between DW, the angle between DW) of the image of different techniques, this paper shows the superiority of technique over proposed and existing techniques.

A. Existed technique: Thresholding Technique: It is a simple image segmentation technique but powerful approach for segmenting images. From a grayscale image, thresholding can be used to create binary images. This technique is based on space regions i.e on characteristics of an image. In the thresholding process, first convert a grayscale image into a binary image, by choosing proper threshold value T, divide image pixels into several space regions and separate objects from the background. For example, f(x,y) is intensity value of image pixel of the object, if it is greater than or equal to T i.e., f(x,y)=T then it belongs to that object otherwise it belongs to the background. There are two types of thresholding methods with regarding selection of threshold value T: global and local thresholding. In global thresholding threshold value, T is constant whereas in local thresholding values is variable because of uneven illumination. Threshold selection is typically done interactively however, it is possible to derive automatic threshold selection algorithms. Threshold technique can be expressed as T=T(x,y),p(x,y),f(x,y)…………………(1) 173|P age Where T is threshold values,y are the coordinate of the threshold value point. p(x,y),f(x,y) are points of grayscale image. The threshold image g(x,y) is defined as: g(x,y) =1 if f(x,y)=T= 0 if f(x,y)=T …..……(2)

B. Proposed Techniques: Texture-based segmentation: Texture segmentation is an important task in image processing. It works at segmenting a textured image into several regions having similar patterns. Texture segmentation has been an effective and efficient technique, so used in many applications like in analysis of biomedical images, seismic images. The texture feature extraction methods can be classified into statistical, structural and spectral. In statistical approaches, texture statistics such as the moments of the gray-level histogram, or statistics based on gray-level co-occurrence matrix are computed to discriminate different textures. In structural approaches, “texture primitive”, the basic element of texture, is used to form more complex texture patterns by applying grammar rules, which specify how to generate texture patterns. Finally, in spectral approaches, the textured image is transformed into the frequency domain.

Region-based segmentation: Region-based algorithms are relatively simple and more immune to noise. Region-based segmentation is based on the connectivity of similar pixels in a region. There are two main approaches to region-based segmentation: region growing and region splitting. Let R represent the entire image region. Segmentation is a process that partitions R into sub-regions, R1, R2,…,Rn, such that n (a) È Ri = R i=1 (b) Ri is a connected region, i = 1,2,..., n (c) Ri Ç R j = f for all i and j, i ¹ j (d) P(Ri ) = TRUE for i = 1,2,..., n (e) P(Ri È R j ) = FALSE for any adjacent regions Ri and R j Where P(Rk): a logical predicate defined over the points in set Rk. For example P(Rk)=TRUE if all pixels in Rk have the same gray level. Region splitting is the opposite of region growing. Region splitting and merging method can divide an image into a set of arbitrary unconnected regions and then merge the regions in an attempt to satisfy the conditions of reasonable image segmentation. Region splitting and merging are usually implemented with a theory based on quadtree data.

In region splitting and merging method the procedure is as follows: Let R represents the entire image region and select a predicate Qi) We start with entire image if Q(R) = FALSE we divide the image into quadrants, if Q is false for any quadrant that is, if Q (Ri) = FALSE, We subdivide the quadrants into sub quadrants and so on till no further splitting is possible.

1. If only splitting is used, the final partition may contain adjacent regions with identical properties. This drawback can be remedied by allowing merging as well as splitting i.e. merge any adjacent regions Rj&Rk for which, Q (Rj U Rk) = TRUE.
2. Stop when no further merging is possible. The portioned and corresponding quadtree is shown in figure 1.

An object can be easily detected in an image if the object has sufficient contrast from the background. Edge-based segmentation represents a large group of methods based on information about edges in the image. There are three basic types of gray-level discontinuities in a digital image: points, lines, and edges. The most common way to look for discontinuities is to run a mask through the image. We say that a point, line, and edge has been detected at the location on which the mask is centered if |R|=T Where R=w1z1+w2z2........+w9z9

Canny edge detection method is a more robust gradient-based edge detection algorithm. It uses linear filtering with a Gaussian kernel to smooth the noise in the image, then it computes the strength and direction of the edge for every pixel in the smoothed image by differentiating the image in the horizontal and vertical directions. Next, it computes the gradient magnitude as the root sum of squares of the derivatives and the gradient direction using arctangent of the ratio of the derivatives. Finally, the edge strength of each edge pixel is set to zero if its edge strength is not larger than the edge strength of the two adjacent pixels in the gradient direction. The remaining pixels after this process are labeled as candidate edge pixels and an adaptive thresholding method is applied on the thinned edge magnitude image to obtain the final edge map. The Canny edge detection follows below algorithm:

1. Compute fx and fy. = * = * = * = * = * = * , is the Gaussian function , , - : , = 2 ( , ) , , - : , = 2 ( , )
2. Compute the gradient magnitude , = 2 + 2
3. Apply non-maxima suppression.
4. Apply hysteresis edge linking.

In this paper, the image segmented techniques have been implemented in MATLAB 2009a. The test images are shown in figure 2a and figure 3a represents dental radiographs and corresponding segmented images are shown in figures (2b-2e) and (3b-3e). The source data of different techniques are tabulated for test images are tabulated in Table 1 and Table 2 for comparison purpose.

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Image segmented methods are very useful in image processing applications. In this paper, we proposed a comparative study of three image segmented techniques: region based, texture based, edge based. Three conclusions we have made on characteristics of dental works (DW).

1. Based on area dental work: In the region-based method area for minute detail is considered. So that the area in region-based is larger as the total area is considered. The results obtained by the texture method similar to when compared to other methods but the one advantage is that it can be implemented to color images. Compared to three methods edge-based segmentation gives better results.
2. Based on the distance between DWs: In the region-based method the area, which is considered may be varied accordingly the distance between DW also varies. This gives the advantage of detection of any minute abnormalities in dental images. In both texture and edge methods the distance between DW same as existing methods.
3. Based on the angle between DWs: In all the methods the angle is the same as an existing method. Comparing three proposed methods, Region: Gives the freedom for selecting the area of minute detail for the dental process.

Cormac McCarthy uses a variety of literary techniques in “The Road” to establish his views on a wide range of themes.

First, the manner in which McCarthy describes the scenes throughout the novel distinctly conveys the bleak world he has created. Punctuation is notably scarce as simple grammatical rules are ignored (such as the use of commas, hyphens, etc) – this keeps to the minimalistic style of the novel, stripping the content down to the bare essentials. McCarthy seems to play around with this style, as he experiments with the use of contractions – for example, on page 2, he uses an apostrophe in “there’d” but dismisses any possibility of regularity of this in “hadnt”. The use of this literary device creates a somewhat ambiguous response in the reader, as the author’s intentions are unclear and misty, similar to the atmosphere of the setting. It is also noted that McCarthy avoids using quotation marks, thereby integrating dialogue with exposition, perhaps portraying the feelings of the characters in the novel; these details are considered unimportant and perhaps even trivial in the post-apocalyptic world. Likewise, occasionally indentations are not used to distinguish the beginning of speech, instead bleeding into the prose – this is shown on page 9, in the lines “His face in the small light streaked with black from the rain like some old thespian. Can I ask you something? he said”. Additionally, the fragmentation of this text portrays the broken world that the author is trying to describe, thus strengthening the impact of the scene.

In addition, we are immediately made aware of an indistinct sense of timing; for instance, we are told that the man “thought the month was October but he wasnt sure. He hadnt kept a calendar for years.” McCarthy hereby skilfully informs the audience that time is irrelevant in this world, as the novel begins in the midst of action, after ruin has taken place. Although the novel is structured chronologically, timing is purposely presented as vague, seemingly unimportant and somewhat trivial in the current world, where only a bleak, foggy atmosphere of the past life remains.

McCarthy forms a strong sense of the scenes he is describing through imagery; this technique is introduced in the very second line, showing the significance of epitome (“Nights dark beyond darkness and the days more gray each one than what had gone before.”). This ominous description instantly sets the scene as an incredibly grim one; this idea is reinforced further as the novel evolves (“Cars in the street caked with ash, everything covered with ash and dust. Fossil tracks in the dried sludge.”) The repetitive use of dull and demeaning adjectives to describe the remains of the city emphasises the effects of an urban tragedy on society, leaving but only broken remnants of the once ‘whole’ world. The vision McCarthy has created is almost a real-life representation of hell, possibly provoking fear and deterrence within the reader. The word “ash” is used repetitively through description to support these ideas, so as to persuade the reader to consider these thoughts and perhaps develop their own interpretations and understanding of death.

Arguably the most common references featured in “The Road” are those with religious connotations – these are introduced from the start of the novel, which gives an insight into the depths of these ideas. For example, McCarthy personifies light in connection with “pilgrims in a fable swallowed up and lost among the inward parts of some granitic beast”. This clear biblical reference showcases the journey the man and boy are undertaking, like that of those on a pilgrimage. On the other hand, the journey could also symbolise the religious journey one takes to lead them to the afterlife, which could be seen as means of avoiding, or perhaps even cheating, death.

Furthermore, death is personified on page 20, in the line “How else would death call you?” The author’s use of language here conveys death to be crafty and sinister, perhaps suggesting that in order to beat death, ‘he’ must be befriended. Although not physically possible, this description provides juxtaposition between the concepts of living and death, in allowing the reader to consider other solutions to the inevitable happenings of death. The prospect of death is indeed brought to the forefront of the scene throughout the novel; it is even present in unconsciousness, as shown on page 17 (“He said the right dreams for a man in peril were dreams of peril and all else was the call of languor and of death”). This detail highlights the role of death in the current world, perhaps in an attempt to reassure the characters – for example, if death is frequently spoken about, it may not seem so patronising or terrifying as the time draws closer. Another key reference to death is given on page 29, as we are given a heart-warming insight into the relationship between father and son – “the boy was all that stood between him and death”.

The relationship between the father and boy is portrayed as a loving, protective one; this is shown from the very beginning of the novel as the man awakes to “reach out to touch the child sleeping beside him”. This instantly establishes the intense bond between father and son through protection, a subconscious reaction towards a loved one – McCarthy presents this relationship in such a way that the audience find themselves able to connect with the characters, as they will most likely be able to relate to this relentless feeling.

Yet another recurring theme throughout the novel is the destination to which the father and son are travelling; the repetitive use of the word “south” (pages 2, 8, 9, 12, 13 and 24) establishes the destination to both the reader and characters. The man almost appears reassuring as he confirms that they are “still going south”, perhaps in an attempt to persuade the boy that their journey is not wasted or worthless. He is also described as having “studied the country to the south”, indicating that plans have been made in preparation, thus confirming that the direction is certain and necessary. On page 29, we are told that “everything depended on reaching the coast” – this detail is more specific than previously mentioned, as a precise destination is given. Moreover, this quote can be compared to the myth of Odyssey, as, like in “The Road”, a journey of hope was undertaken. The journey throughout the novel symbolises life in whole (life is a journey, in which one may have to face seemingly impossible tasks).

To conclude, McCarthy is able to convey his views of death, religion, and relationships through the use of many literary devices, including structure, language and imagery, thus strengthening his vision. This proves to be very effective, as the audience is invited to connect with the characters throughout the novel, provoking both thought and feeling.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Imagery in “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”
3. Conclusion
4. References

Introduction

When it came to modernist poetry, imagery was important to flesh out the lavish artistic style said poets loved to express, which in turn allowed them to declare themes and concepts clearer. T.S. Eliot, consider among the great poetic modernists, masterfully utilizes imagery through his poem “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” to illustrate the superficiality and weakness of its protagonist representative of society as a whole, and serve as a warning to any potential male readers of Eliot to not make a Prufrock of themselves.

Imagery in “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”

T.S. Eliot uses imagery in his modernist poem, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”, in a strange and unconventional way. Rather than build meaning, as typical with imagery, Eliot sets out to utilize imagery to take real meaning away. Over the course of the poem, the narrator, J. Alfred Prufrock, struggles to tell the reader his overwhelming question. He instead diverts attention to images or ideas that are ultimately meaningless to the grand scheme promised in the poem.

One of the most left field and significant of these is when he remarks he “should have been a pair of ragged claws scuttling across the floors of silent seas.” This line has no real meaning and does not connect to anything going on in the rest of it. The reason for his diversion is to deflect focus from his serious thoughts into empty wonders. Ragged claws suggest a crustacean creature, which is significant for Prufrock’s character as these creatures are built around self-defense and keeping their sensitive being hidden away through a hard exterior.

Prufrock wants to keep to himself and shed off any serious concerns with his defense of a wandering and unfocused mind. This stream of consciousness, while revealing of who Prufrock is on the inside to a degree, does nothing with its promise of some sort of life-altering overarching theme or question. Prufrock is afraid to reveal anything that could be taken as not as grand as he wants to be, so he keeps it inside of his shell. The thought of him wanting to be a crab may be random, but the image of a crab is significant, even if for the wrong reasons.

Prufock’s self-image is also crucial for understanding what the poem offers to say about the emasculation and growing pessimism that plagues men as Eliot saw. This comes from the imagery of Prufrock himself. With a bald spot in the middle of my hair – [They will say: "How his hair is growing thin!"] My morning coat, my collar mounting firmly to the chin, My necktie rich and modest, but asserted by a simple pin – [They will say: "But how his arms and legs are thin!"].

The flowing pace of the poem becomes sharply lessened as lines follow the end of the first verse ‘In the room the women come and go Talking of Michelangelo’. By employing such a method, Eliot introduces the inadequacy of his character, cutting short Prufrock's diatribe about the vulgarity of his existence and using a simple rhyming couplet in order to smear his character with an image of pure despair. His unsettled mood and despair is further captured through visual imagery and repetition in, “the yellow fog that rubs its back against window panes/the yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes”. Prufrock is hence represented as an individual wracked with languor, unable to form meaningful connections hindered by his fear of inadequacy and the sterility of modern society. Thus through the vicarious exploration of Prufrock, Eliot establishes a symbiotic relationship between the development of society and an evoked sense of inadequacy fostering a paralyzing effect on the human condition.

Prufrock is a self-deprecator, a man afraid and unaccepting of his own masculinity. On multiple occasions, he draws attention to his bald spot. Balding in men is caused due to the male hormone dihydrotestosterone and while it is tough to say that this knowledge was common sense in Eliot’s time, it is still interesting to note with a contemporary perspective that Prufrock is, in a way, afraid of his own masculinity through his balding. Prufrock’s fickleness regarding his being makes him appear more as a feline than a man, obsessively grooming.

It is important to note that no one in the poem actually says to his face that his limbs are thin and weak. Prufrock hypothesizes that people will say that, showing his low self-esteem and image. His necktie is simultaneously “rich and modest” and this juxtaposition compliments Prufrock’s scatterbrained and unfocused state of being; he cannot make up his own mind as to whether he is well off or just standard. Prufrock can be related to many males reading this poem, so Eliot uses him as an example of what a man should not be. In his own poem, Prufrock is a weak and spineless man who is too afraid of any notion of accepting responsibility or venturing out of his comfort zone, too afraid that he will instead insult and then be insulted in retaliation.

Again, Prufrock further signals his alienation and insecurities with those around him with the line “to prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet,” which implies that he is afraid of showing his true self to people that he does not hold close to him, writing them all off as simply faces one meets (line 27). This idea of wearing a face is perhaps a direct allusion to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung and his idea of a “persona.” Jung describes a persona as being "a kind of mask, designed on the one hand to make a definite impression upon others, and on the other to conceal the true nature of the individual" (Jung, 190).

This perfectly falls in line with what Prufrock is setting out to accomplish through this line. He is being self-defensive about his true self, hiding his real thoughts and weak personality behind a façade to not come off as cowardly, to make a more desirable impression on those around him, and those he feels attraction towards. After all, what sort of man is one worth taking notice of when he measures his life with coffee spoons, an image that signifies that he does not think far into the future and is more concerned with the materialistic entities surrounding him.

He projects this fear of commitment to his real world and those living within it and his favoring of nonsensical nothings outwards when he states he has known the arms already, known them all” of the people he always passes by (Eliot, line 62). His life is so mundane and his mind so single focused that he does not view the people around him as whole, just body parts. This image of floating body parts adds to his isolation and is rooted in Prufrock’s fear of women, or rather, of making any sort of impression on a woman.

There is a brief moment in like 64 where he sees an arm “in the lamplight, downed with light brown hair!” (line 64) The exclamation mark following this observation builds an image that Prufrock is fascinated by this woman, and her presence has left an impact on him so great that he truly emotes in the poem, and it is the only time than an exclamation in the poem is delivered due to the action of someone outside of Prufrock. However, this is not enough for him to come out of his emasculated shell, as he immediately forgets about this and slips back into his sterile monotonous tone describing the various objects about him.

J. Alfred Prufrock is a man who, in his modern times, has become complacent and passive, letting himself go to be taken by the powers that be through a trivial life on no true substance. Prufrock makes a point in saying there is “time yet for a hundred indecisions, and for a hundred visions and revisions” and this line perfectly sums up Prufrock’s decision making, or rather lack thereof (lines 22-23). Prufrock values his time, but only when it’s spent, ironically, doing nothing.

Throughout the whole poem, Prufrock is making indecisions and is constantly revising his own vision of himself through preparing “masks” for others. This is a man who does not take action, but rather action takes him to nowhere in particular. Prufrock is afraid to make any real decisions that could remotely leave an unsatisfactory impact on the world, so he attempts to justify himself on multiple occasions at holding out on asking his important question by question how he should presume.

This is a man who has been emotionally castrated, and with that comes the associated post-complacency with the theoretical removal of the primary source of testosterone. Prufrock is too afraid to make any significant contact with a female because he’s afraid he will somehow offend her with his presence accidentally. Prufrock’s refusal of action and passivity is signaled most clearly when he declares he is “not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant to be” (line 111). Hamlet is, of course, the protagonist of William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet and he is a character whose sole defining trait is his inability to act. The entire play is Hamlet musing over whether he should or should not commit various acts, most significantly murder his uncle.

By saying that he is not deserving to be Hamlet, Prufrock is affirming himself as even less decisive than a character whose sole purpose is to be indecisive. It also shows that Prufrock believes that he should never be considered the protagonist of even his own poem, and as such the poem does not really follow him but rather he follows various occurrences around him. Prufrock as a character does not really grow or change and him not wanting to be a protagonist and rather be a minor role who starts a couple of scenes ties into how he dresses moderately and wishes to not be noticed. Prufrock is so complacent that he describes mermaids as ignoring to sing to him.

The singing of mermaids is often associated with using femininity to draw masculine men seeking pleasure to their dooms, but Prufrock is so emotionally sterile that his lack of masculinity offers nothing to the mermaids; he is not even worthy of being killed. Prufrock will remain walking through the fog, ever so passive and disregarding anything around him. At the end of the poem, Prufrock completely slips away into the ocean imagery that he had been alluding to for the whole poem.

It appears he finally got his wish of becoming a crab, at least in his mind, which represents that he has successfully shelled himself away from the world. He ends the poem by saying that he, and the reader, have both drowned together, that Prufrock’s toxic self-pitying has gone on to infect the reader, and he is pulling the reader down into the dark ocean with him. This is what happens when we indulge in the life of someone as worthless as Prufrock, Eliot says.

Conclusion

Overall, T.S. Eliot utilizes all sorts of various images and descriptions to develop his character of J. Alfred Prufrock, who actually is not much of a character at all. Rather than develop Prufrock to be a compelling and interesting figure, Eliot does the exact opposite and draws him as pathetic and unremarkable through Purfrock’s own personal self-image and the way he views the world around him. Eliot’s purpose for doing this to poor Prufrock is to set him up as a figure representative of the detrimental effect that the modern age to Eliot has had on men such as Prufrock.

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Prufrock is an extreme case of emasculation and complacency, showing the weakening of pompous men and their crippling self-doubting that causes them to be weak and engage in inaction, bringing down the world and people around them in an ill fog of depression and unsureness. “The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock” on the surface is a run of the mill stream of consciousness about a man going for a walk, but Eliot fleshes the world and subject through rich imagery to deliver a point about superficiality in his modern day, delivering a cautionary tale to his male contemporary reader to not fall into the same pitfalls that Prufrock has vested onto himself.

References

1. Brown, A. (2018, March). A metaphorical analysis of the love song of J. Alfred Prufrock by TS Eliot. In Accounting Forum (Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 153-165). No longer published by Elsevier. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0155998217301679)
2. Madlool, N. K. (2023). A Stylistic Analysis of TS Eliot's''The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock''. Journal of Tikrit University for Humanities, 30(1, 1), 18-35. (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367976615_A_Stylistic_Analysis_of_T_S_Eliot's_''The_Love_Song_of_J_Alfred_Prufrock'')
3. Samy, S. (2021). A Cognitive Stylistic Analysis of The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by TS Elliot. Academia Letters, 2. (https://www.academia.edu/49957478/A_Cognitive_Stylistic_Analysis_of_The_Love_Song_of_J_Alfred_Prufrock_by_T_S_Elliot)
4. Browning, G. (1973). ELIOT'S THE LOVE SONG OF J. ALFRED PRUFROCK, 55-61. Explicator, 31(6). (https://www.proquest.com/openview/555486bd629d74c04a9af6d03054919c/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1821239)
5. Anufrieva, M. (2012). “I have measured out my life with coffee spoons”–TS Eliot: A semantic analysis of selected metaphors in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by TS Eliot. (https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A530470&dswid=451)

Although Waiting for Godot and Mother Courage and Her Children are quite different in terms of plot structure and setting, there are similarities present in the use of bleak imagery as symbols of religious, social, and political criticism. The symbolism extends beyond the imagery and encompasses the characters themselves. The props, especially in Godot, have an abstract significance more easily apparent in the ways in which they are utilized than their inherent characteristics.

Boots play a symbolic role in both of these plays, although serving different purposes. In Godot, the constant struggle of removing and replacing the boots, as well as the incessant question of which boot belongs to which character, is representative of a deeper fundamental identity crisis channeled toward external signifiers of identity. Mother Courage offers the red high-heeled boots to Kattrin to comfort her after she receives her facial scar. Kattrin refuses to accept them- they symbolize, to her, the abuse that she has suffered at the hands of men. Male attention has stolen her voice and her facial beauty, and the boots represent the incongruity of love and war.

When the drum rolls signify that Swiss Cheese is set to be executed, the stage briefly becomes dark. This is a symbol of death much akin to darkness that occurred before the crucifixion of Christ. Indeed, Mother Courage denies knowledge of Swiss Cheese’s identity, reminiscent of Peter’s denial of knowing Jesus. Interestingly, the chaplain’s song after Swiss Cheese’s arrest tells of the moments leading up to the crucifixion. Waiting for Godot utilizes darkness as a similar allegory of death, as night falls and the men are reprieved of their “duty”, no longer bound to wait for Godot.

One striking moment in Waiting for Godot occurs when Pozzo instructs Vladimir to place the bowler on Lucky’s head so he can think. This inanimate object, by virtue of the status it affords, allows Lucky to think for himself and he begins to soliloquize. When the hat is knocked off, his monologue abruptly ends. We get the sense that it is not Lucky who is doing the thinking, rather it is the hat and the identity that it embodies. The symbolism of the hats is not restricted to Lucky, and Vladimir and Estragon exchange hats with each other multiple times, highlighting the fluidity and flux of their identities. The rope around Lucky’s neck symbolizes the power dynamic between him and Pozzo, and the abuse makes it clear that Lucky is his subordinate. Yet in the second act, the rope is much shorter, and it is Lucky who directs the now-blind Pozzo, blurring the lines between servant and master.

Kattrin, like Lucky, lacks a voice, although hers has been stolen from her through rape rather than slavery. Her drum, another inanimate object, can be said to give her the voice she lacks. It is interested to note that the drum is among the things that Kattrin brings back after she is attacked while purchasing things for her mother. We see that the drum, to Kattrin, symbolizes defiance against oppression. These inanimate objects, although not infused with any special powers, empower the characters to accomplish what they cannot. Both Kattrin and Lucky surprise us with their significance by the end of the plays. It becomes apparent that Lucky’s name, although seemingly ironic, actually suits his position relative to the other characters. Lucky possesses two luxuries that the others lack: certitude and awareness. Lucky does not struggle with the “agony of choice” as Vladimir and Estragon both do; Pozzo gives him the certainty and authority that Godot will never provide for them. Lucky is also fully conscious of his status as a slave, whereas the other characters maintain an illusion of false freedom. There is an interesting duality here, of the seemingly least fortunate character possessing a fortune of consciousness, that is mirrored by Kattrin’s character. She too, is mistreated and seems to lose more in the war than any other character: she loses her voice, her beauty, her dreams, and ultimately her life.

Yet Kattrin displays immense courage, awareness, and self sacrifice- more so than any other character. Mother Courage seemingly touches upon this when she attempts to comfort Kattrin, saying she is “lucky” that she is no longer pretty, and that this would save her. These two characters at first seem inconsequential, but eventually come to symbolize the tremendous potential and fortune of the seemingly unfortunate. Both of these plays are ultimately attempting to portray the devastation and destruction of identity and self that occur through religious, social and political processes.

Phillis Wheatley is one of the most influential poets in American history, notably for paving the way from African American poets as well as female poets. Her rare, and arguably liberated, upbringing allowed her to relay her messages of freedom, reform, and religion to a wide audience of intellectuals. Though her messages appear, at times, to be sardonic, she uses her knowledge of Greek mythology, African American social issues, and political undertones in order to express her uninhibited cry for freedom. Phillis Wheatley’s On Imagination uses the metaphysical plane as a way to spiritually transcend the bonds of slavery and create a realm where all of humankind, more specifically slaves, have the ability to be free from the oppressive nature of the physical world through the guise of imagination.

Wheatley uses height, audio cues, and light in order to describe the powerful exodus of slaves toward metaphorical freedom and to exemplify the notion that the escape is spiritual rather than bodily. Wheatley describes the blissful escape as a heavenly plane, one that is high above the earthly world. She writes that one must be, “Soaring through the air to find the bright abode/ Th’ empyreal palace of the thund’ring God” (223), in order to eclipse the earth and reach something that is beyond mere existence. Additionally, Wheatley emphasizes words such as bright, gold, and light in order to focuses concretely on visual images that make the empyreal plane transcend all the negative attributions of the dull physical world. According to these notions, imagination is perfection because it surpasses all the turmoil of the mortal plane and thus cannot be controlled or stopped. Imagination, to her and the other slaves, is the exact opposite of their outlook on life because it cannot be contained and it is the one thing they are able to have agency over. By questioning, in regards to imagination, “Who can sing thy force?” (223), Wheatley creates a parallel between Imagination and god, as in the Christian faith hymns and spirituals are create a strong connection between the higher being and the individual. In this poem, it is evident that Imagination is not a communal god, one who asserts and accesses power through the collective recognition from man but Imagination is a god that cannot be described, worshiped, or quantified by any means. Wheatley uses nouns such as flying, illumination, freedom to describe imagination because these words are indescribable themselves. The significance of light, sound, and heights suggests that imagination has the power to bring an individual to a higher plane of life and illuminate their existence in the same way that god would. These specific points of reference further indicate the accessibility of these far away lands and conceptualizes freedom, of the mind, for all people.

Fancy and Imagination are separate but equal forces that are tangible modes of escape and are readily accessible to all who believe and adhere to their power. By focusing on power as the key to escape, Wheatley was able to give slaves something they so desperately desired. She writes, “Such is thy pow’r, nor are thine orders vain/ O thou the leader of the mental train” (223). By constructing deities that are both powerful and created by a black woman, slaves were able to identify with the belief rather than reject the idea of a free man’s paradise that was preached by white men. The imagery of a train, is vital to American narratives as it, most notably, represents a pathway to a better life and more specifically a path towards freedom. Imagination seems to have a muse like power, inspiring artists to continuously work, while Fancy appears to represent a being that acts and transports people out of the harsh world. Fancy may be a figure of Wheatley’s imagination or she may be the physical embodiment of this powerful deity, as she herself is inspiring the souls of slaves. Wheatley concedes, “But I reluctant leave the pleasing views/ Which Fancy dresses to delight the Muse” (223). By painting Phillis Wheatley, as the inspirer, she thus becomes a Christ-like figure, or one who sacrifices, in this case the freedom of the heavenly plain, in order to generate awe in others despite the physical restrictions of political, social, and economic oppression.

On Imagination captivates the audience by examining the true nature of oppression and more specifically the white oppressors that limit the freedom of slaves. Like all poignant narratives, Wheatley creates a dichotomy of good and evil that is rooted in racial inequalities. Fancy is equality embodied, as she opens her arms and welcomes all of mankind, while Winter represents the ideals of white oppressors. Wheatley explains, “Though Winter frowns to Fancy’s raptur’d eyes/ The fields may flourish, and gay scenes arise” (223). Winter is stoic, dark, and the catalyst of death while spring, or in this case Fancy, represents life and change. Wheatley pits these two forces against one another though it is clear that there is no true winner, because just like spring will always emerge from the desolation of winter, there is always a certainty that there will be darkness again.

On Imagination is a poem that focuses on notions of spiritual liberation though the message is rooted in Wheatley’s patented politically charged ideology surrounding inequality and religion. Phillis Wheatley captures the audience with her notoriously mythological narrative on the construction of an entire world beyond all of humanity, where freedom is a luxury affordable to all who are willing to believe. Wheatley appeases her, prominently white audience, by displaying imagination as a valuable escape but beneath all the metaphors she is exhibiting radical views on racial liberation and is vying for human rights.

Othello is a tragedy. But what qualities does it possess to qualify it as such? The key difference between comedy and tragedy is the ability to reconcile and tolerate the inevitable foibles of the human condition. In Othello nothing is tolerated, and nothing is reconciled. Instead, Iago provides the spark and fuel to ignite a fire that ultimately consumes all the characters. While Iago's responsibility for what occurs is undeniable, however, the subsequent events would not have been possible had a social structure enabling such a consuming fire not already been established. The tragedy of Othello occurs when the supposed virtue of the principal characters unravels into evil, enabling Iago's plan to flourish. That virtue, however, was already unstable before Iago's intervention.

Immediately before committing suicide, Othello likens himself to "the base Indian" who threw a pearl away (5.2.356). This is significant because at this moment, Othello is recognizing himself as the ignorant barbarian that Venetian society always believed he was. Another potential phrasing of the line, based on the folio, is "Judean," replacing Indian. By likening himself unto a Jew rather than a barbarian, there is a greater sense of malice afoot---perhaps alluding to Judas' betrayal of Jesus. In either phrasing, however, Othello is condemning himself, whether as a barbarian or simply a debased human being. Both phrasings serve as a confirmation of what, one might suppose, the prevalent society may have always suspected. Othello always was an outsider. Despite that status, however, and the accompanying haze of suspicion such status brought, Othello had constructed an image of himself as a man of virtue. A courageous, noble, brave warrior and a protector of Venice. Whether or not the virtue was real or imagined is peripheral to the discussion since regardless of Othello's true nature, his outward appearance was certainly a construction necessitated by the attitudes of Venetian society at the time. As witnessed by the response of Brabanzio to hearing his daughter had been taken by Othello, and the frequency with which Othello is referred to as "The Moor," the people had an expectation of what a Moor was to be---a barbarian, an ignorant beast. In order for Othello to overcome that expectation he had to create an almost superhuman construct of himself. Even a man who truly was virtuous, if faced with the same cultural obstacles as Othello, would need to create an especially extraordinary exterior projection to compensate for the inherent disadvantages he had to face. In short, Othello's virtue was, at least in part, imagined---a fact of which he was painfully aware.

Similarly, the virtue of Desdemona was something that had to be maintained at all cost. As Desdemona herself laments after hearing of Cassio's presumed fate, shortly before Othello kills her, "Alas, he is betrayed, and I undone. (5.2.83)." Desdemona is "undone" because her virtue had been destroyed (of course, she's also about to die). Importantly, however, Desdemona never actually did anything to destroy that virtue. Instead, in this instance, virtue is something external; more a perception than a reality. Her husband Othello no longer believes that Desdemona is virtuous and so, that virtue has been destroyed, she has been "undone," and death follows. The key to the unraveling of the virtue of both Desdemona and Othello lies entirely, in fact, within the realm of perceptions and their inherent unreliability: The perceptions of Othello, of Desdemona, and of the prevalent society of Venice.

An individual's sense of perception is inherently flawed. Turning to the concept of radical doubt, how do we know what we think we know? The people of Venice thought they knew what a Moor was and yet Othello defied those expectations. Othello, meanwhile, knew who he himself was at a deeper level, and also what he thought Venice thought he was. The construct of virtue that Othello created for himself was based in part on what he perceived to be the expectations of the Venetians. Pushed to its logical destination, everything Othello and the other characters did was based upon suppositions and perceptions of others. Iago poisoned that stream of perception. Once Iago introduced concepts of infidelity to Othello's perception, everything took on different meanings. Desdemona's supposed betrayal of him challenged Othello's own internal sense of strength and virility and began to eat away at the construct of virtue he was seeking to sustain. Circumstantial evidence, such as the handkerchief, became irrefutable evidence when seen through the tinted lens of Othello's enraged perceptions. The result was a crisis for Othello as he tried to reconcile his own construct of reality and himself with the constructs he perceived that Venetian society held of him, and well as his perceptions of Desdemona. Unable to reconcile the different constructs, Othello completely unraveled and retreated to the base level of the prevailing society's expectation of him: the ignorant barbarian. His perception---or imagination---defeated reason. Everything Othello had worked to establish suddenly evaporated. His status as an esteemed warrior paled when viewed in contrast to his existence as "the base Indian" throwing away a pearl. His descent from virtue was the substance of tragedy and the consequent corruption the very nature of evil. Aristotle decreed that tragedy occurs not when someone who is completely virtuous falls through no fault of their own. Tragedy occurs when someone who is imperfect falls not by depravity but rather, by their own frailty or imperfection. Their hamartia, or tragic flaw. Othello was not purely virtuous---which is not to say he wasn't a good man. However, he was not perfect. In order to survive as an outsider within the Venetian culture, Othello had to imagine a construct for himself that was perfect and beyond reproach. When challenged by reality and unable to reconcile the discrepancies in his life, the virtue of Othello unwound and disaster became unavoidable.

Ultimately, Iago was successful because his plan hinged upon the inevitable flaws of human perception. Once doubt was introduced into Othello's already fragile perception of his life and relationships, the inevitable consequences were set in motion. Just as order invariably seeks disorder in the universe, the human mind inevitably seeks similar disorder. Othello could not reconcile the disparate perceptions he was faced with and in response retreated to his basest level of jealousy and violence. Despite his best efforts, the initial skepticism of Venetian society was validated as virtue was corrupted into evil and Iago emerged victorious.

Imagination is the individual’s ability to create mental images through his perception of reality. It is an indispensable artistic tool that allows humans to express themselves creatively; it separates us from other living creatures. In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Stephen Dedalus struggles through adolescent life in order to discover his true vocation. In this novel, imagination is the invisible force that compels Stephen to take initiative in life. As the story progresses, the role of imagination is evident in Stephen’s four distinct transformations. “I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race” (Joyce 275). His imagination is the implement that allows Stephen to finally create his own conscience and, via self-understanding, finally become an artist.

Stephen’s first major transformation occurs when he confronts the rector at Clongowes Wood College. Stephen thinks it unjust that Father Dolan punished him for idleness when he was actually excused from his assignments. His determination to right the injustice against himself is only possible through his imagination. After shrinking from his cause, Stephen is emboldened: “He though of the baldy head of the prefect of studies with the cruel noncoloured eyes looking at him and he heard the voice of the prefect of studies asking him twice what his name was” (Joyce 56). This diminutive and negative description encourages Stephen to take action. After imagining Father Dolan, he becomes confident and successfully requests the rector to correct the mistake. This initial victory, the first in a series of events that lead to Stephen’s freedom from society, takes place largely because of his active imagination.

As Stephen continues to grow and understand more about the society around him, he encounters new obstacles that he must overcome to reach his calling. The irony is that Stephen sets himself up for these challenges; both the ups and downs of his life are due in part to his own decisions. One such trial involves the Dublin prostitute, where Stephen loses his innocence but learns of the folly of sinful life. “The equation on the page of his scribbler began to spread out a widening tail… It was his own soul going forth to experience, unfolding itself sin by sin, spreading abroad the balefire of its burning stars and folding back upon itself, fading slowly, quenching its own lights and fires.” (Joyce 110)

As Stephen imagines his scribbler, he thinks about its relation to his own sinful life. He pictures the various sins he has committed and also discusses lights and fires. This foreshadows his abandonment of this life for the religious one; the recurring symbolism of fire convinces Stephen that this immoral life is not for him. Stephen’s imagination of its consequences leads him to this conclusion. When Stephen decides to quench his sexual needs, he is once again allowing himself to progress through a stage in life. However, the imagination plays a crucial role here as he decides to leave behind the sinful life that many people choose and continues to search for his vocation.

After indulging in sin, Stephen Dedalus becomes repentant and decides to live his life religiously. The religious retreat with Clongowes terrifies Stephen; he believes that a vengeful God will condemn him for his sins. The main factor here is Father Arnall’s speech. He speaks of fire and brimstone, emphasizing that those who sin will not be forgiven unless they instantly atone for their wrongdoings. “Hell is a strait and dark and foulsmelling prison, an abode of demons and lost souls, filled with fire and smoke. The straitness of this prisonhouse is expressly designed by God to punish those who refused to be bound by His laws” (Joyce 128). Although this description is from Father Arnall’s imagination, it still compels Stephen to act. He is convinced that the sermon is meant specifically for him and decides that he can change. After listening to this dreadful description, Stephen’s picture of himself burning in the hellfire scares hjim into taking action: “There was still time. O Mary, refuge of sinners, intercede for him! O Virgin Undefiled, save him from the gulf of death!” (Joyce 135) Stephen acknowledges that he has sinned and decides that he should amend his life. After confessing and living piously for a period of time, Stephen once again abandons an institution and moves on with his life. He decides that the religious vocation is not his either; his rejection of both faith and the pleasures of the world through these imaginative lessons now pave the way to Stephen’s awakening.

The final metamorphosis that Stephen undergoes shows why the name of the novel is A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He has finally taken on the Daedalus persona and become a mature artist. “Old father, old artificer, stand me now and ever in good stead” (Joyce 276). Stephen’s tribute to his namesake, the great artist who escaped from his own labyrinth by imaginatively crafting a flying device, is a final testament to Stephen’s acceptance of his role as an artist in society. He imagines himself soaring away from the entrapments of sin and religious service: “His throat ached with a desire to cry aloud, the cry of a hawk or eagle on high, to cry piercingly of his deliverance to the winds. This was the call of life to his soul not the dull gross voice of the world of duties and despair, not the inhuman voice that had called him to the pale service of the altar” (Joyce 184).

Stephen’s avoidance of the snares of life is only possible through his imagination, which is evident in his final discovery: “A girl stood before him in midstream, alone and still, gazing out to sea. She seemed like one whom magic had changed into the likeness of a strange and beautiful seabird… and when she felt his presence and the worship of his eyes her eyes turned to him in quiet sufferance...” (Joyce 186). The female figure represents aesthetic beauty; she is the epitome of what Stephen considers art. After imagining this ideal woman, Stephen finally understands his calling. He has transcended the confines of society and ultimately decides to leave behind his home, family, and religion to pursue art.

Through the various stages in Stephen’s life as a young man, he becomes more and more informed about the world around him. His imagination propels him through these experiences; it constantly pushes him to make choices, whether good or bad. Stephen learns that indulging himself in sin is not befitting of his character, nor is becoming a strictly religious priest. He finds his place as an artist, a man free of all such constraints. The decisions that he makes correlate with Stephen’s destiny and eventually lead to his career as an artist. Without his creative talent, Stephen would not have progressed through life in this fashion, and it is possible that he would not have become an artist either.

The Jungle by Upton Sinclair was about Jurgis Rudku who was an immigrant from Lithuania that came to the United States to discover his dreams, hopes, and desires. He took his family to Chicago to start a modern life. He worked in meatpacking businesses that were unsanitary and brutal sum of hours that come about into starvation. He was abused and realized the American dream wasn’t as simple as it appeared. The book bargains with illness, starvation, debasement, wrongdoing, destitution and passing. “Leave it to me; take off it to me. I will win more cash – I will work harder.” This was said by Jurgis regularly since he and Ona continuously battled with cash and having a work but Jurgis never needed Ona to push almost those issues. Jurgis continuously took charge when it came to genuine choices since he knew he was the man and required to stand his ground. All through the book Jurgis continuously tells Ona that he will work harder, indeed on the off chance that he can’t physically work any longer since his body is as well tired. “In the end it was through a daily paper that he got a work, after about a month of seeking.” This appears the genuine battle of being an worker and having no involvement to discover a work. Jurgis had numerous occupations all through Chicago and they all weren’t simple to get, he had to battle for a spot. The lion’s share of the book took put in Chicago amid 1906. As I perused the Wilderness I saw from starting to conclusion the battle an migrant family went through and realized being in the genuine world is a parcel harder particularly in case you don’t have an instruction. The Wilderness is an American classic since of the part in took put in the Nourishment and Sedate Organization and made a distinction to all the laborers who worked in the meat pressing industry.

At the turn of the twentieth century “Muckraking” had gotten to be a exceptionally prevalent hone. This was where “muckrakers” would bring major issues to the public’s consideration. One of the most capable pieces done by a muckraker was the book “The Jungle”, by Upton Sinclair. The book was composed to appear the unpleasant working and living conditions in the pressing towns of Chicago, but what caused a major contention was the rottenness that was going into Americans meat. As Sinclair afterward said in an meet almost the book “I pointed at the public’s heart and by mischance hit them in the stomach. The meat pressing industry took no obligation for creating secure and sterile meat. One reason for this issue was that there was no genuine assessment of the meat. A cite from “The Jungle” tells of a government reviewer checking the swine’s for Tuberculosis, “This government auditor did not have a way of a man who was worked to passing; he was clearly not frequented by a fear that the hoard might get the attention has also been caused by the use of machines in the packing process. The industry uses fast running machines hence the employees are exposed to more injury risk. The industry is majorly comprised of immigrants and undocumented employees. This has greatly attracted attention due to the care for the employees who are mainly non-citizens (United States Department of Labor, 2010).

The circumstance has driven to a few labor organizations instructing the workers on security and wellbeing organization. For occurrence the Nebraska which is a wellbeing organization and word related security joined up with a Mexican Emissary, Jose Cuevas, to teach workers. The instruction was basically on the work environment security. The company, Word related, Security and Wellbeing Organization, (OSHA) was to supply preparing and oversight to the meat pressing and cleaning companies (OSHA Speedy take, 2010). OSHA has taken this move since there are no particular benchmarks for the meat pressing industry. These benchmarks laid by OSHA have been embraced by twenty-five states and this has driven to other states embracing measures pertinent to the subject mobilized by OSHA, the organization given for a few orders to empower the security inside the industry. The mandates pointed at directing distinctive angles in the industry which included; the modern meat tenderizing innovation in the meat industry, the cutting danger.

The Pure Food and Drug act also passed after the Meat inspection passed after the Meat assessment Act of 1906. The packers denied the charges and restricted the bills to no profit. These bills ensured the public’s right to secure clean meat. In conclusion it is self-evident to see that rights and obligations were not carried out by the meatpacking industry. They were ravenous driven commerce men who “poisoned for profit” as President Roosevelt said. The meat packers had a right to make their item but did not take the obligation to do it in a way that was secure to the customer. Much obliged to individuals like Upton Sinclair and Theodore Roosevelt, the meat industry nowadays takes the obligation to make a secure quality item of the open.

Table of contents

1. Immune Tolerance
Organs of the Immune SystemPrimary Lymphoid OrgansThymusSecondary Lymphoid OrgansSpleenLymph Node

This is the system that protects the body from harmful substances/microorganisms, they are like the soldiers of the body because they defend the body and kill the invaders. Immunity given by the immune system is the protection of the body from infections and agents that cause disease (Latha, 2012). This system is the most complicated system in the body because it is made up of various organs, tissues and cells apart from the nervous system. Without this system present in the body, the cells would constantly be invaded by different kinds of harmful microorganisms or substances.

The blood and lymph systems are very important in coordinating an attack against infectious organism and other invaders. Given that the biological kingdom has many different pathogens, the immune response to such organisms are not always similar. The response of the immune system depends on different variables such as mode of entry, type of pathogen and behaviour of pathogen (Latha, 2012). The main responsibilities of the immune system is to; neutralise invaders like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoans, and remove them; recognise their presence in the body immediately they invade through cytokines and toll – like receptors; Fighting against cancerous cells using killer T cells.

The immune system comes into action when non-self-substances enter the cells. These substances are the proteins on the surface of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and they are called Antigens. When these antigens bind to the receptor sites on the surface of the immune system cells, a combination of processes are put into place. The immune system has the ability to store memories and can remember them when known pathogens attack again; this enables the process to be faster. The body cells also have surface proteins but the immune system cells have been programmed to distinguish between its own surface proteins and foreign ones. In the case that the immune system attacks self-cells, viewing it as non self, it is called an autoimmune reaction. This reaction can be triggered by a number of things for example, a combination of infections.

Immune Tolerance

The reason why the immune system can function properly is due to self-tolerance; its ability to differentiate between self-reactive and non-self-reactive lymphocytes because the body is not supposed to work against its own healthy cells. This ability of the immune system to tolerate it cells helps it to pin point and eliminate the lymphocytes that have the potential to be self-reactive. Even with this mechanism, some defective (self-reactive lymphocytes) still escape, exit the thymus, and are able to be activated to bring about autoimmune diseases.

Organs of the Immune System

The immune system is also referred to as lymphoid system because lymphoid tissue and lymphoid organs form the core of the immune system. The organs of the immune system are divided into primary lymphoid organs and secondary lymphoid organs.

Primary Lymphoid Organs

These organs are also known as central lymphoid organs. In these organs, differentiation, proliferation and maturation of pluripotent cells into immuno competent cells occur. The central lymphoid organs are thymus and bone marrow. The thymus is where T cells are produced after the differentiation and maturation of hematopoietic stem cells. For the B cells differentiation and maturation occur in the bone marrow. The mature T and B cells in the primary lymphoid organs do not show any response because they have not been exposed to antigens since presence of antigens is necessary for an immune response.

Thymus

The thymus is a flattened bi-lobed organ with lymph epithelial tissue above the heart and beneath the sternum. Source lymphocytes of hematopoietic stem cells move from the bone marrow to the thymus via the blood stream in other to undergo differentiation and maturation into immuno competent cells. Each of the thymus lobes is organised into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The peripheral cortex of each lobe is very populated with differentiated but immature T cells or thymocytes while the medulla is filled with mature lymphocytes that are loosely arranged. Given that there are mature T cells in the cortex and medulla, the order in which maturation occurs is not totally understood.

In the thymus the lymphocytes increase quickly by majority of them die without ever functioning, leaving about 5% of the cells for maturation. This might be because they failed to react with antigens and/or react with self-antigen, and so were deleted during the selection process. Thymus epithelial cells secretes a hormone called thymosin which helps in the growth of T cells by stimulating their development. The remaining T cells that did not die move out of the thymus into the peripheral blood and lymph, and colonize the secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs that the thymus is dependent on. When they interact with an antigen they become active and give cellular immunity. The structural frame work of the thymus is a three-dimensional structure which is composed of inter digitating dendritic cells, stomata cells, epithelial cells and macrophages. The epithelial cells have long extensions which surrounds as much as 50 thymocytes in the cortex and also the blood vessels, and lymph spaces of the medulla and cortex. The function of the membrane of epithelial cells is probably to prevent macromolecules, which includes antigens, of the blood to come in contact with the T cells in the lymphocytes. Therefore, the epithelial cells are referred to as nurse cells. The presence of these nurse cells is most likely the reason why there are no immune reactions in the thymus.

In childhood, thymus activity reaches its peak but by puberty it gets to its largest size and later decreases in size (known as atrophy), an in old age, it becomes very small. Therefore, immunity declines as one gets to old age. The thymus reduces due to increase in total fat of the organ and decrease in the cortical and medulla cells size. Given that T cells play an important role in immunity, it is essential that the thymus develops completely. Aplasia of thymus is the failure of the thymus to develop and it results in defects in immune reactions involving T cells. In order to deal with problems that may arise in the absence of thymus, the organ can be replaced or supplements of the thymosin can be used.

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

These organs are also known as peripheral lymphoid organs and where the mature lymphocytes stay and function in response to antigenic stimuli. These mature lymphocytes are cells from the primary lymphoid organs which are competent enough to protect the body from foreign antigens. It is in these organs that immune competent cells interact with foreign agents and carry out immune response. Antibodies from activated B cells are produced here, as well as activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. The peripheral organs may either be encapsulated to have a specific shape or in the form of diffused tissues. The encapsulated organs are spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils and adenoids. The mucosa associated lymphoid tissue which is distributed all over the body such as the alimentary and respiratory tracts are examples of the diffused secondary lymphoid organs. The secondary lymphoid organs are usually under developed at birth and shows progressive growth with age unlike the primary lymphoid organs which decreases with age.

Spleen

As mentioned above, the spleen is an encapsulated secondary lymphoid organ. Large, red, and oval shaped, the spleen is located in the left side of the abdominal cavity below the pancreas. This organ responds to systemic infections because of its contact with the main arterial circulation. A histological study of the spleen shows the penetration of connective tissue from capsule into the spleen to divide it into centrally connected compartments. There are two different regions in each compartment; the red pulp and the white pulp. The red pulp region is non-lymphoid and it consists of a network of sinusoids filled with red blood cells (RBCs) and macrophages. It is in this region that destruction of defective and old RBCs occurs. It is also the site for blood cells in early development stages. In adult’s spleen produces RBCs with the bone marrow in order to face crisis when there is an emergency. The white pulp region is lymphoid, and in this medium, a major part of the lymphoid tissue arranges around a central arteriole which forms a periarterial lymphatic sheath (PALS). Since Malphigi was the first to describe the arrangement of lymphocytes, it is called malphigian body. In the malphigian body, next to the PALS are the B cells, which are organized in the form of lymphoid follicles, in the marginal zone. The T lymphocytes are distributed with the dendrite cells and present around the arteriole are the interdigitating cells, so that when the blood borne antigens enter the malphigian body of the spleen through the artery, the interdigitating dendritic cells (antigen presenting accessory cells) would capture the pathogens present and present them to the T cell lymphocytes. This activates the T cells which in turn activates the B cells.

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Lymph Node

This is another encapsulated secondary lymphoid organ, which is bean shaped and complex. The reticular network filled with lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells are enclosed with connective tissue capsule. They are clustered at the junction of lymphatic vessels and they filter lymph. Pathogens that enter through the gastrointestinal tract or respiratory tract would have to pass through regional lymph nodes where they are either effectively trapped for phagocytosis due to the presence of macrophages in the lymph nodes or initiate an immunological response from T and B cells. The point in the lymph node where blood enters and exits is known as the Hilus. There are several afferent lymphatic ducts through which lymph enters this organ but after it has been filtered, it exits through a single duct. The internal environment of the lymph nodes has three different areas, histologically; the cortex, the para cortex and the medulla. The cortex region of the organ contains B cells, macrophages, and follicular dendritic cells arranged as primary follicles. When there is an interaction with antigens, the primary follicles would enlarge into secondary follicles with a germinal center. The development of two germinal centre means that the B cells are actively differentiating and preparing to eliminate the antigen. These secondary follicles with germinal centers appear more during secondary immune response than in primary immune response. The paracortex is densely populated with T cells and interdigitating dendritic cells.

The Black Death, also known as the Black Plague, Bubonic Plague, and sometimes just “The Plague”, was one of the worst diseases to hit Europe back in the 14th century. The Black Plague, according to Modern Historians, had killed between 25 to 50 percent of the entire population of Europe in only two years, sometimes turning small, thriving towns into lifeless, ghost towns. The Black Plague swept mass hysteria over many civilians, which in effect, caused a record breaking amount of people to ultimately fear this disease. Even today, many people aren’t comfortable with the thought of the Black Death. So how did our ancestors manage to control the mass hysteria and the prolonged deaths? In truth, our ancestors didn’t control either. Medicine wasn’t advanced enough to save the ill from death, so dying wasn’t a choice, nor was mass hysteria. Along with the Black Death, came fear. Once both hit, no one felt safe. Due to this, our ancestor’s society was immensely affected by the fear of death. The Black Death caused thousands of people to die, soon following would be their society.

In 1348 and 1349, the Black Death was notoriously known for being the worst disease to ever hit Europe. Previous Plagues that rummaged across the country didn’t cause fairly enough damage to the population, only killing off the young, sick, or elderly. Cities might’ve had common outbreaks, but none of the diseases spread far enough. Unlike any other Plague that hit Europe, the Black Death caused lots of damage to the population, killing the young, sick, elderly, and even healthy adults. The Black Death “spread like wildfire” across Western Europe in one summer, only to return the next summer worse than before (3, Black Death). No one seemed safe from the torturous disease.

Throughout the years in which the Black Death caused agony, many people began to speculate that the Black Death wasn’t just a disease, but it was actually a sign. Beliefs arose that the Plague was some sort of Witchcraft, or it was a sign that the world was coming to an end. Some religious figures (known as the Flagellants) could even tell you that it was “God’s judgement on sinful mankind” (3, Sin). People believed many of these lies, which resulted in countless acts of flogging (beating) one another. Finally, after several days and nights, the right to flog was seized by Pope Clement VI. Another disastrous speculation about the Black Death was that it was created by the Jews (which of course was a lie). Mobs of religiously involved people targeted Jews, which they claimed caused the Black Death by poisoning all of the available drinking water. Due to this, Jews were arrested, their fortunes were seized, and their lives were taken from them. After another several days and nights of this, Pope Clement VI seized the right to enable a Christian harming a Jew. These two instances were one of the main causes of inhumanity being lost, therefore their society decreasing.

Society began its decrease more and more once the disease gotten worse and worse. Population decreases in Europe led to a plummet in jobs, which hurt the land even more. Farmer’s farmland wasn’t used, and all of their animals died. This resulted in a reduce in the output of food. Food began to go in demand, and starving became common in the land. Work began to rise in demand, and labor became harder to find. People that couldn’t pay for food had to live as a slave for others, and parents whose kids were starving had to be sold just so they could be fed. Slaves were beginning to be craved by more wealthier citizens and business workers. The increase for slaves were growing more and more by the day. Eventually, after the Plague had wiped out hundreds of citizens, rebellions began due to rising wages. Workers whom were disrespected by their bosses began to revolt, and peasants called for a reduction in service obligations. In the end, Peasants and workers revolted in Spain, the Netherlands, southern Germany, Italy, and England.

England’s society and the Black Death were very much related to one another. The relationship between the Black Death and England’s society is similar to a “cause and effect” situation, in which one thing occurs, another thing similarly happens. For example, once the Black Death hit, people were terrified of the new disease, which triggered speculations that (eventually) ended other citizen’s lives. Because of this, two years of England’s society began to wither once the Black Death hit. If this is true, then if the Black Death would’ve never hit, then England’s society would’ve never decreased into the troubling society that it became to be. In conclusion, the Black Death, a sinister disease that hit the country of England and many more, not only killed thousands of citizens, but altered England's society as well.