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Positivist thinkers has famously challenged the proposition that international law is actually law. John Austin questioned how international law could be regarded as law without a sovereign, and H.L.A. Hart claimed that international law is law, but one which is comprised of primary rules. International legal thinkers who sought to answer these challenges often argued that secondary rules of international law have now been developed. Most prominently, the Rule of Recognition is often articulated through the theory of sources of international law. These claims are part of the positivist tradition in international legal thought which pushed away, throughout the 19th century, the theories of natural law which dominated the field in the previous centuries (see, e.g. the writings of Alberico Gentili, Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) and Emer de Vattel (1714-1767)).
Get original essayInternational law has been dealt with in relation to, or in comparison with, international ethics or morality. This is evidenced by john Austin’s claim that international law is not law the proper sense of the terms but positive morality.
Consequently, what we call “international law” is, as Austin put it, actually “a law in name only.”
It is a form only of what he called “positive morality,” because whether it is enforced or not depends entirely on whether “nation-states” are willing to obey it.
He was a thinker on jurisprudence on the typical Hobbesian line of thinking. Austin defined a “law” as a rule laid down by a sovereign power for which obedience can be enforced ? because there is some penalty for failing to obey it. Thus, as he saw it, for a “law” to be regarded as a “law,” there must be some legal sanction for not obeying it.
As a young man, John Austin’s family bought him a junior commission in the army and after five years’ service he began to study law in 1812. From 1818 to 1825 he practised, rather unsuccessfully, at the Chancery Bar. Austin was never a practical man but he impressed the circle of people around Jeremy Bentham with his powers of rigorous analysis and his uncompromising intellectual honesty. In 1826, when University College London, was founded, he was appointed its first professor of jurisprudence; at that time legal education on the most part was practical and it was nearly impossible to get a university degree in English law.
A key point for Austin is that to achieve legal reform (and reform of government and social institutions through law) one has to have a very clear understanding of the nature of law itself. The first task was to rid our understanding of law from the confusions and ‘mysteries’ of the common law tradition. Austin tried to do this by putting ‘positive law’ into a political framework, taken in considerable part from Hobbes: law was part of the political relations of sovereign and subject.
Austin was concerned to analyze the concept of a legal system and the central concepts used in legal discourse.
These two aspects of Austin’s theory give the basis for his specific pedigree test of legal validity. They are a part of his version of legal positivism but not, as we shall see later, an essential part of legal positivism itself.
Criticisms levelled at Austin’s views:
My project will mainly deal with the Second criticism (i.e. Austin on International law).
The matter of jurisprudence is positive law: law, simply and strictly so called: or law set by political superiors to political inferiors. But positive law (or law, simply and strictly so called) is often confounded with objects to which it is related by resemblance, and with objects to which it is related in the way of analogy: with objects which are also signified, properly and improperly, by the large and vague expression law.
“A law, in the most general and comprehensive acceptation in which the term, in its literal meaning, is employed may be said to be a rule laid down for the guidance of an intelligent being by an intelligent being having power over him.”
Laws set by men to men are of two leading or principal classes: classes which are often blended, although they differ extremely; and which, for that reason should be severed precisely and opposed distinctly and conspicuously.
Of the laws or rules set by men to men, some are established by political superiors, sovereign and subject: by persons exercising supreme and subordinate government, in independent nations, or independent political societies. The aggregate of the rules thus established or some aggregate forming a portion of that aggregate, the term law, as used simply and strictly is exclusively applied. But, as contra-distinguished to natural law, or to the law of nature (meaning by those expressions, the law of God), the aggregate of the rules established by political superiors is frequently styled positive law, or law existing by position. As contra-distinguished to the rules which Austin styled positive morality, and on which he touched immediately the aggregate of the rules, established by political superiors, may also be marked commodiously with the name of positive law.
Closely analogous to human laws of this second class are a set of objects frequently but improperly termed laws, being rules set and enforced by mere opinion, that is, by the opinions or sentiments held or felt by an indeterminate body of men in regard to human conduct. Instances of such a use of the term law are the expressions – ‘The law of honour;’ ‘The law set by fashion;’ and rules of this species constitute much of what is usually termed ‘International law.’
The aggregate of human laws properly so called belonging to the second of the classes above mentioned, with the aggregate of objects improperly but by close analogy termed laws, Austin places together in a common class, and denote them by the term positive morality. The name morality severs them from positive law, while the epithet positive disjoins them from the law of God.
For the name morality (or morals), when standing unqualified or alone, denotes indifferently either of the following objects, namely, positive morality as it is, or without regard to its merits; and positive morality as it would be, if it conformed to the law of God, and were therefore deserving of approbation.
Besides the human laws which Austin styles positive law, there are human laws which he styles positive morality, rules of positive morality, or positive moral rules.
The generic character of laws of the class may be stated briefly in the following negative manner. No law belonging to the class is a direct or circuitous command of a monarch or sovereign number in the character of political superior. In other words, no law belonging to the class is a direct or circuitous command of a monarch or sovereign number to a person or persons in a state of subjection to its author. But of positive moral rules, some are laws proper or laws properly so called: others are laws improper or laws improperly so called.
Some have all the essentials of an imperative law or rule: others are deficient in some of those essentials of an imperative law or rule: others are deficient in some of those essentials, and are styled laws or rules by an analogical extension of the term. The positive moral rules which are laws properly so called are distinguished from other laws by the union of two marks:
Inasmuch as they bear the latter of these two marks, they are not commands of sovereigns in the character of political superiors. Consequently, they are not positive laws: they are not clothed with legal sanctions, nor do they oblige legally the persons to whom they are set. But being commands (and therefore being established by determinate individuals or bodies), they are laws properly so called: they are armed with sanctions, and impose duties, in the proper acceptation of the terms.
The positive moral rules which are laws improperly so called, are laws set or imposed by general opinion: that is to say, by the general opinion of any class or any society of persons. For example, some are set or imposed by the general opinion of persons who are members of a profession or calling: others, by that of person who inhabit a town or province: others, by that of a nation or independent political society: others, by that of a larger society formed of various nations.
A few species of the laws which are set by general opinion have gotten appropriate names – For example, there are laws or rules imposed upon gentlemen by opinions current amongst gentlemen. And these are usually styled the rules of honour, or the laws or law of honour – There are laws or rules imposed upon people of fashion by opinions current in the fashionable world. And these are usually styled the law set by fashion. There are laws which regard the conduct of independent political societies in their various relations to one another: Or rather, there are laws which regard the conduct of sovereigns or supreme governments in their various relations to one another. And laws or rules of this species, which are imposed upon nations or sovereigns by opinions current amongst nations, are usually styled the law of nations or international law.
Now a law set or imposed by general opinion is a law improperly so called. It is styled a law or rule by an analogical extension of the term. When we speak of a law set by general opinion, we denote, by that expression, the following fact: Some indeterminate body or uncertain aggregate of person regards a kind of conduct with a sentiment of aversion or liking: Or (changing the expression) that indeterminate body opines unfavourably or favourably of a given kind of conduct. In consequence of that sentiment, or in consequence of that opinion, it is likely that they or some of them will be displeased with a party who shall pursue or not pursue conduct of that kind. And, in consequence of that displeasure, it is likely that some party (what party being undetermined) will visit the party provoking it with some evil or another. The body by whose opinion the law is said to be set, does not command, expressly or tacitly, that conduct of the given kind shall be forborne or pursued. For, since it is not a body precisely determined or certain, it cannot as a body express or intimate a wish. As a body, it cannot signify a wish by oral or written words, or by positive or negative department. The so called law or rule which its opinion is said to impose, is merely the sentiment which it feels, or is merely the opinion which it holds, in regard to a kind of conduct.
On the prevailing tendency to confound what is with what ought to be law or morality, that is, first, to confound positive law with the science of legislation, and positive morality with deontology; and secondly, to confound positive law with positive morality, and both with legislation and deontology.
It is also a common criticism that a ‘command’ model seems to fit some aspects of law poorly (e.g. rules which grant powers to officials and to private citizens – of the latter, the rules for making wills, trusts and contracts are examples), while excluding other matters (e.g. international law) which we are not inclined to exclude from the category ‘law’.
More generally, it seems more distorting than enlightening to reduce all law to one type. For example, rules that empower people to make wills and contracts perhaps can be re-characterised as part of a long chain of reasoning for eventually imposing a sanction (Austin spoke in this context of the sanction of ‘nullity’) on those who fail to comply with the relevant provisions. However, such a re-characterisation as this misses the basic purpose of those sorts of laws – they are arguably about granting power and autonomy, not punishing wrongdoing.
Austin assumes that God’s commands to us are the true morality. Austin distinguishes divine law/the true morality from “positive morality,” or the beliefs about what’s right/wrong, just/unjust that are held by the majority of people in some society. The positive morality of our society is correct insofar as it coincides with divine law and incorrect insofar as it deviates from it. It’s worth noting that Austin had an unorthodox view of the content of divine law. Austin believed that God commands us to be utility maximizers, making utilitarianism the true morality.
Austin’s command theory doesn’t work for international law, because there is no international sovereign, that is, no entity with the power to force all countries to obey international law. But Kelsen’s and Hart’s expedients allow international law to be treated as law “properly so called.”
The existence of law is one thing; its merit or demerit is another. Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry. A law which actually exists, is a law, though we happen to dislike it or though it very from the text by which we regulate our approbation and disapprobation. This truth, when formally announced as an abstract proposition, is so simple and glaring that it seems idle to insist upon it. But simple and glaring as it is, when enunciated in abstract expressions the enumeration of the instances in which it has been forgotten would fill a volume.
Austin made a lasting impact for at least two reasons:
It is always a simplification to generalise; however, it can be maintained that those who adhere to legal positivism do not deny that moral and political criticism of legal systems is important; instead they insist that a descriptive or conceptual approach to law is valuable, both on its own terms and as a necessary prelude to criticism.
Positive law consisted of those commands laid down by a sovereign (or its agents), to be contrasted to other law-givers, such as God’s general commands, or the general commands of an employer. The ‘sovereign’ was defined as a person (or collection of persons) who receives habitual obedience from the bulk of the population, but who does not habitually obey any other (earthly) person or institution. Austin thought that all independent political societies, by their nature, have a sovereign. Positive law should also be contrasted with ‘laws by a close analogy’ (which includes positive morality, laws of honour, international law, customary law, and Constitutional law) and ‘laws by remote analogy’ (e.g. the laws of physics).
Austin also wanted to include within ‘the province of jurisprudence’ certain ‘exceptions’ – items which did not fit his criteria but should nonetheless be studied with other ‘laws properly so called’: repealing laws, declarative laws, and ‘imperfect laws’ (laws prescribing action but without sanctions, a concept Austin ascribes to ‘Roman law jurists’).
In the criteria set out above, Austin succeeded in delimiting law and legal rules from religion, morality, convention and custom.
However, also excluded from ‘the province of jurisprudence’ were customary law (except to the extent that the sovereign had, directly or indirectly, adopted such customs as law), public international law and parts of constitutional law.
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Get custom essayAustin’s sharp distinction between custom and law is replaced in various ways. Kelsen bases law on customary acceptance of law by the community in general, while Hart emphasizes the importance of customary acceptance by the legal community. Either of these expedients allows international law and constitutional law to be treated as law “properly so-called.”
Australians rejoiced on Dec. 07, 2017, as the legislation to allow same-sex marriage, the Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017, passed the Australian Parliament and received royal assent from the Governor-General the following day.
Get original essayWith this, Australia becomes 26th Nation in the world, which has legalized same-sex marriage, thus sending a strong message of unity and equality for its citizens, across the globe, and thus inspiring other countires, to follow the lead.Apex court of India, has already re-ignited the homosexulaity debate in India and now, a larger Constitution Bench will review its 2013 judgment upholding the validity of Section 377 of the IPC which criminalises gay sex. With the people in the world, recognizing the rights of long suppressed LBTQI community, same-sex marriage has got a lot of heated debates across various stages in national and international forums around the globe.We, tried to analyze the situation and the whole process and in Australia and tried to relate it with India.
History of Marriage Act 1961 (Australia)In Australia, the Marriage Act 1961 is the current Act that regulates marriage law in Australia. The Act was passed by the Australian Parliament and applies uniformly throughout Australia (including its external territories); and any law made by a State or Territory inconsistent with the Act is invalid. The Act is made pursuant to power granted to the federal parliament under s.51(xxi) of the Australian Constitution. The Act recognises only marriages of two people and does not recognise any other forms of union, including traditional Aboriginal unions
Before 2004, there was no definition of marriage in the 1961 Act, and instead the common law definition used in the English case Hyde v Hyde (1866) was considered supreme. Though Sect 46(1) of the Act required celebrants to explain the legal nature of marriage in Australia to a couple as “the union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life”, these words were descriptive or explanatory, rather than outlining what constituted a legally valid marriage in Australia.
On 27 May 2004 the then federal Attorney-General Philip Ruddock introduced the Marriage Amendment Bill 2004 to incorporate a definition of marriage into the Marriage Act 1961 and to outlaw the recognition of same-sex marriages lawfully entered into in foreign jurisdictions. In June 2004, the bill passed the House of Representatives. On 12 August 2004, the amendment passed the Parliament. The bill subsequently received royal assent, becoming the Marriage Amendment Act 2004.
The amendment incorporated a definition of marriage into section 5 of the Act, known was the Interpretation section:“marriage means the union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life”. and inserted a new section:88EA Certain unions are not marriages
A union solemnised in a foreign country between:(a) a man and another man; or(b) a woman and another woman;must not be recognised as a marriage in Australia. Thus, the amendment in the marriage act, made all the same-sex marriages illegal and forbidded any further homosexual marriages. The then prime minister, John Howard, rushed the amendment through the parliament, without any plebiscite, which we think, was not ehtical and a public majority should have been taken into account without making a major change in the Marriage Act.
Between these 13 years, there have been 22 attempts to recognize homosexual marriage in Australia, under federal law, but all were unsuccessful. After the amenedment in 2004, many ministers tried to introduce and re-introduce the same-sex marriage bill in the parliament.
On 19 September 2012, the House of Representatives voted against passing its same-sex marriage bill by a margin of 98-42 votes. On 20 September 2012, the Senate also voted down its same-sex marriage legislation, by a vote of 41-26.
Conclusion and the Future Ahead “What a day. What a day for love, for equality, for respect”, said Mr Turnbull. “It is time for more marriages, more love, more respect... This belongs to us all. This is Australia.“It is really a good news for all the marginalized people of LGBTIQ community, who are seen by hatred. People are accepting them, and this shows how humanity is evolving. We do talk of equality in all aspects, but it is us only, who do not abide by it. We differentiate people based on their caste, religion, color, creed and Sexuality, which is by any means wrong.
Sexuality is something, one has no choices on. You haven’t chosen to be man or woman, it is by the very nature of your self, the way you behave and you are. If someone behaves effiminately, it doesn’t mean he is doing it by purpose. There is no harm in a guy loving a guy or a girl loving a girl. “Love is blind”, when we say this, we should respect the every form of it. Everyone has their right to live and express their love, and society has no rights of doing Ifs and Buts for it.
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Get custom essayFurthermore, one can sense that thinking of the people is changing. Society is getting more broad minded and accepting. They are understanding. specially the new generation. Hope, the Supreme Court of India as well as the people of India too, understand this and become acceptable to this section of the society which just want some love and acceptance from us!Though, their is a word of caution here, for Australia. Just like an amendment was passed in 2004, and again in 2017, there is a slight possibility that in future too this may happen. The ebb and flow of politics can be fickle, and the work of one incumbent government can always be replaced with the forceful will of their successor. While the general consensus regarding the legalization of same-sex marriage in Australia is one of support, there is always a chance that, down the track, the civil rights of many can be refuted by the stance of a few.
The poem Australia 1970 written by Judith Wright with the tone of the poem being anger and negative she expresses that she all hatred is what she has with the country and the way humans are not being considerate of the animals she is taking their side. She expresses how animals need to start fighting back when the people within it take what's theirs from habitats to their own kind. This poem has many similes within it For example on the first stanza of the poem, it says «Die like a wild country, like the eagle hawk, dangerous till the last breaths gone».
Get original essayThe eagle hawk will keep on fighting until it is dead and the author is speaking directly to nature telling the nature to fight back just as the eagle hawk does. She continues uses these analogies throughout the story by mentioning animals, for example, the author states «Die like the tiger snake that hisses such pure hatred from it is pain a fills the killers dreams with fear like suicides invading the sun» she continues naming animals that coexist in this environment that is being destroyed and is basically saying to fight back and be like them. She then later in the poem says «Though we corrupt you with our torturing mind. Stay obstinate; stay blind» she is then taking responsibility for causing this damage. Another example of her taking responsibility is when she says this «for we are conquerors and self-prisoners» this shows she is not blaming others and not herself, by her using we and not the word then she helps us create an image in our mind of everyone corrupting the environment for our sake and not thinking about how animals are consistently getting stripped of their natural states.
The mood of this poem The Darkling Thrush written by Thomas Hardy is very gloomy. He is a pretty negative guy, therefore, he is more pessimistic than optimistic. It is the end of the year which means it is winter there and he states «And Winter's dregs made desolate The weakening eye of day» this means since the sun is not out as much and goes down early this is making people feel lonely and they are filled with comfortless vibes it almost seems. People do not want to go outside for it is too cold and there is no sun to warm them. They feel dim and dark just like how the outside looks. He makes life seem so pointless like we are just constantly in this sorrow state with the weather like this. Later in the poem, it states «and every spirit upon earth seemed fervourless as people all around are lifeless the author then uses similes to compare and say their spirits were «shrunken hard and dry». He uses this comparison to how he feels saying they felt as he did.
The poem's mood then shifts and the mood completely changes once he hears a voice that arouses from among. The poem states «At once a voice arose from among. The bleak twigs overhead In a full-hearted evensong of joy illimited». This sentence implies the sound comes from a bird since the sounds come from a twig, the bird is beaten up but the author then realizes how even though the bird is not in the best shape it still releases the amount of happiness and joy it has. He does not know why or how something out there in the world finds even one ounce of happiness and reason in this world to live with any happiness and yet this question is not answered within this poem.
The Australian sugar industry is one of the most vital industries to Australian agriculture as it is the second largest raw sugar exporter in the world behind Brazil. Almost all of the Australian sugar (95%) is produced in Queensland with about 5% being produced in northern New South Wales. According to the Australian Sugar Milling Council, “There are approximately 4400 cane farming entities growing sugar cane on a total of 380,000 hectares annually, supplying 24 mills, owned by 7 separate milling companies. The vast majority of cane farms are owned by sole proprietors or family partnerships. The mill ownership structures are a combination of publicly owned entities, privately held companies limited by guarantee, and co-operatives.” However, the in the 2017/18 season, the harvest area was expanded to 410,000 hectares, significantly above the 10 year average of 380,000 hectares. The 40% increase in the price of sugar over the last 3 years led sugar cane producers to increase production.
Get original essayThe sugar industry is especially important for Australian trade as approximately 80-85% of the sugar produced in Queensland is exported, which brings in over $2 billion annually to Australia. The production from the New South Wales area is mainly refined and used locally in the domestic market. Sugar exports for 2016/2017 exceeded initial estimates to reach 3.9 million MT due to favorable yields and changes in the international market. The Korea-Australia free trade agreement removed a 3% tariff on raw sugar imported into Korea, which evened the playing field for Australia, allowing them to export more to Korea. Additionally, the Japan-Australia Economic Partnership eliminated a tariff on raw imported sugar, which proved beneficial for Australian exports. Australian exports to the Chinese market are also expected to increase over the next few years due to increased market demand.
The Australian sugar industry has undergone some significant changes in the last 15 years that are still not completely settled. Before 2006, a company called Queensland Sugar Limited (QSL), was in charge of export sales of raw sugar directly to refiners in other countries, essentially controlling the marketing of the entire Australian export industry. In 2006, the Australian government deregulated the Queensland sugar industry, which forced QSL to negotiate voluntary contracts with the mills to market their raw sugar for exports. Every mill has signed contracts with QSL as they have had long, trusting relationships with them except for a company called Wilmar that threatens to disrupt the industry.
Wilmar bought 8 sugar mills in 2010 and 2011 that collectively produce more than half of Australia’s supply of sugar. Instead of using QSL to market their sugar, Wilmar has decided to sell all of its sugar through its own trading arm, which is completely legal under the deregulation in 2006. However, this decision has caused a lot of backlash that has affected Australian sugar cane growers, politicians, as well as QSL and Wilmar.
The growers, who sell their sugar cane to the mills, are upset because of the price differences between Wilmar and QSL mills as Wilmar is paying $104 per ton less than QSR. Additionally, as the arguments drag on, up to $1 billion worth of sugar cane could be waiting to be crushed and sent to market as cane supply agreements between growers and mills are stalled. This issue is making its way into the political sector as the Liberal-National Party, who is traditionally supported by the sugar cane growers, needs to find a good outcome of the issue soon. Growers are becoming increasingly impatient as they want to have a say in who markets their sugar as it has significant economic impacts. This issue also poses a threat to foreign investment due to the uncertainty over the industry as well as potential government regulation. New regulations from the government could discourage foreign investment as it could set a precedent for the government to resolve disputes in a supposedly “deregulated” market with more regulations.
Cyber security indicates towards the practice of protecting data from unofficial access. To withstand these security challenges different security measures are used. The field is becoming more important because of increased dependency on computer systems. Authentication, authorization and accountability plays an important role in safeguarding the data in online security systems and software applications. User is identified by the authorization process. authorization process begin after authentication for the better security purpose, authentication and authorization should be incorporated into any website, especially those who deal with online transaction and personal information. Accountability refers to the willingness to accept the responsibility in protecting the data through various measures such as by record keeping and tracking the user activities. The regulator state that financial investors, business are at greater risk due to cyber crime data theft by the cyberpunk. With increasing technologies the cyber security has enhanced with an advantage for defenders over attackers.
Get original essayIn the upcoming world cyber security is emerging as a vast challenge for security measures. The world is moving ahead with the use of new technologies, dealing with online services. So cyber security has emerged a big question in front of society and it’s preventive measures. Cyber security is the act of protecting networks and computer systems from unofficial access through cyberpunks who damages the software, electronic data and also from the individuals who misuse the data. Due to increasing dependency on computers and smart devices, the cyber security is more focused. The mostly targeted consumer devices are laptops and desktop computer from where cyber criminals gather financial account information, passwords etc. In order to protect the computer system, it's important to learn about the threats and attacks and the precautions to be used. The authentication, authorization and accountability plays an important role in securing data. Each individual term has specific function and the objective.
Authentication is the practice of identifying users identity. It confirms the users identity. Authentication starts when the user enters their username, allowing system to confirm their identity. After entering the user details the system is allowed to confirm the identity. The authentication process compares the users credentials with the details that exist already on files. At last, once the identity is matched, the authentication process is completed. In short authentication works on the fact that the only user is known to the password. But password authentication is not more effective method in securing the data. Password authentication can be replaced by two more alternatives and the alternatives are by e-mail authentication and by the biometric authentication. For more efficient security, the companies should implement a strong authentication system to keep data safe from unofficial access. To prevent data accessing from unofficial persons, companies should incorporate one or more password alternatives together. So that it becomes difficult for cyberpunk to crack the password.
Email authentication is a method by which user can securely log in without using the password just by using email address. During email authentication the first step is that the user clicks the login button and opens a mail to link that directs the person to prewritten email. The user sends the email by using token based security checks, the users identity is verified.
Biometric authentication is a method by which user can securely log in by using users biology. The most common biometric authentication is fingerprint scanning.
Users identification is one of the biggest challenge in the Information technology department. So to overcome these security issues different authentication protocols are introduced-
Depending on the type of authentication, the level of security also changes. They are categorized in following types:
A security which helps to identify user related to system sources and the access level such as files, data, services and the programs. An authorization policy specifies what the users identity is allowed to do. Most commonly authorization is predate by authentication for users identification. Authorization process verifies the user identity and grant permissions to access the resources that is the data stored. To manage security, most of the multiuser operating systems is dependent on the effective design of authorization policy. The authorization is based on authentication mechanism like security policy, integration and active directory. The concept of authorization can be clear by an example, any bank consumer can create an account and use it to log into the bank online services. At these movement authentication confirms the user identity with the help of authentication process and authorization helps the user to access the documents and files by granting permission to user after authentication.
An common authorization policy can be shared in a group of identities. Most frequently, user is aware of authorization policy when an individual uses social media like Twitter, Facebook or LinkedIn. Use of authorization process is an important part of securing data from unofficial access. It seeks the user permission about what user is able to do. Security authentication and security authorization can be an effective measure against phishing, which is an attempt to acquire sensitive information from user such as user name, password and credit card details by deceiving them. By combining one or more password together a strong password can be bring into existence.
The authentication is followed by authorization, one step is incomplete without the other. For better security purpose authentication and authorization should be incorporated into a website, especially those who deals with online transactions and personal information.
Accountability is different concept from authentication and authorization. It studies the responsibilities of an individual regarding the security measures taken. It refers to the act of accepting the duties of an individual working with information system. Each individual working with online data and applications have specific responsibilities for information assurance. The user is responsible for planning overall information protection plan. The information security should be check at proper intervals of time.
Internet of things are gaining more importance from the scientific community. So it is become of more important to enhance maintainability, usability, security and development of best practices in the field of internet of things. Research in field of internet of things is applicable at various application layer such as authentication and authorization. The problem of access control emerged, when computers began to used for data management and storage with multiple uses. Here access methods deals with authorization and not with authentication. Authorization specifies special action. In internet of things it is not limited to passwords but as well it includes security questions, their interaction history and other details. Multifactor authentication is a frequent practice done to increase the security. The first level includes identifying the user by providing little information and credentials. As application becomes more complex, the information required for user authorization grew to include roles or identity attributes.
When the customer application are organized in cloud, an authentication and authorization plug in model helps user to obtain their control on their business information. In cloud computing, the user is able to register their own authentication and authorization security module with cloud security service. Here the user should use strong passwords and authentication measures. Data is at greater risk from inside attackers than the outsiders. According to cloud computing treaty report, in cloud computing inside attacks are the sixth biggest danger in cloud computing. So to provide security they provide logical storage segregation and data isolation. The system can be strengthen against incidents by using preventive controls. For instance cloud users can use strong authentication, making it safe from unofficial access. The use of encryption technique for security purpose. Her biometric authentication can be used instead of password authentication. So that it becomes somewhere difficult for cyberpunk to access the sensitive data.
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Get custom essayAs discussed on the topic authentication, authorization and accountability. It helps to secure the data by use of different tools such as protocols to safeguard the data from unofficial access. In short, authentication sees that the person trying to access the particular application is the user or not. By using password and various authentication factors. Further based on identification, authorization helps to know about what access permissions are granted to the user. All around, the user is authenticated based on AAA server. AAA server stands for Authentication, Authorization and Accounting. Security issues arises due to failure In security measures. For securing data its necessary to withstand the all basic security measures such as authentication, authorization and accountability. accountability helps to make user aware of their responsibilities. It also introduced to the application of authentication, authorization and accountability in clod computing system and also in the internet of the things.
Sometimes when you try to log in to a wireless network, you experience an authentication error. This is a common problem that is faced by many tablet and Android smartphone users. What is annoying is the fact that this error pops up even if you have entered the correct password. This could be extremely vexing if you need to get something done urgently like sending an important email or access a file online. It gets worse if you can’t use the mobile data either, for whatever reasons since there can be a bug that will end up messing up experience. The Wi-Fi authentication error isn’t necessarily a singular issue, and it could signal something wrong in your Android device or the wireless network or both. In this guide, we will help you with these Android Wi-Fi authentication problems.
Get original essayYou can try one of the proposed solutions and your problem will be solved in a jiffy. If not, then there are lots of other ways in which you can solve your conundrums Understanding Android Wi-Fi authentication problems An Android Wi-Fi authentication problem shows up when you are unable to connect to a Wi-Fi network even though the password you have entered is completely valid. Instead of connecting to the network and saving the password for later, the device tells you that it’s authenticating. After some time, you are told that there is an authentication problem or you see an authentication error beneath the name of the network you are trying to connect to. The first thing that most people do is re-enter the password, to ensure that the password that has been punched in is indeed correct. Unfortunately, sometimes you know for sure that the password is valid, especially if it’s your home network that you always connect to. If this is the case, the issue could be deeper than what can be seen with the naked eye. We have a compiled a list of possible solutions to help you figure out what caused these Wi-Fi authentication problems in the first place and help you solve them.
Fixing Android Wi-Fi authentication error issues
What works for one device, might not work for the other. That’s because there could be different underlying issues that led to this problem. If you are certain that the password is correct and your other devices are connecting just fine to the wireless network, chances are that there is a software issue or pairing problem that is just not letting you connect your device to a Wi-Fi network.
The first solution that you can try is resetting the connection between your Android device and the wireless router. Just remove the wireless network from your Android device and add it again as a new connection. This solution usually works for most Android Wi-Fi authentication problems. Go to the Settings app on your device and the look for the Wi-Fi below Network connections. Look for the network that you are trying to connect to and long press the name of the network or its SSID. A popup menu will appear with two options: modify network configuration or forget network. Choose the ‘forget network’ Distance yourself enough from the Wi-Fi router so that you just get one signal bar. Then try reconnecting to the network and enter the password again. If all goes well, the password will be authenticated and your device will be connected to the network. If this solution doesn’t work for you, try the next one.
Most of the time, the ‘authentication failed’ error message is shown when the details of the network such as the username and password do not match. You might be confident that the password is correct, but you might be trying to connect to a different network with the same name. For example, your neighbor’s router name might be the same as yours. If coincidentally you are trying to connect to another wireless network with the same name using your password, you will get the Android Wi-Fi authentication error for sure. To avoid this problem, just rename your wireless network.
No matter which device you are trying to connect to a wireless router, an IP conflict will not let the connection go through. This is true for Android devices too. To solve this issue, change the wireless network setting of the Android device from the default DHCP setting to Static IP. Go to the Settings app on your Android device and select the Wi-Fi as above. Long press the network you want to connect you and then select the modify network config in the popup menu. Some devices display this option as ‘modify network connection’. Go to the next box for advanced options and the look for IP settings. Change it from DHCP to Static. You will be shown an IP Address field. Copy down the information shown in the Static IP field and then delete it. Re-enter the information and save it.
If you are confused about the IP address, Netmask, gateway, and DNS to enter, just ask your internet service provider for assistance.
You should also check if someone has recently enabled Mac filter on your Wi-Fi router settings. You need to contact the network administrator to disable it or add your Wi-Fi address to the network that should be able to fix the issue.
We usually don’t use the Airplane mode unless if we do not want to be disturbed or we are actually on a plane. Did you know that this mode can actually solve your Wi-Fi woes? Sometimes your mobile network interferes with the Wi-Fi connection. Try the following: On your Android device, pull down the ‘Quick Setting’ Turn off the Wi-Fi and the mobile network. Turn on the Airplane mode. The setting is present in the Quick Setting menu. While the Airplane mode is active, switch on Wi-Fi and try connecting to the network once more. If the connection is successful, turn off the Airplane mode and enable the mobile network too. This method might seem strange but it works by resolving a potential conflict between the wireless network and the mobile network.
Sometimes it might be cumbersome to find out what exactly is causing the Wi-Fi network authentication error. A simple solution is to just nuke the network setting. Nuking means refreshing all the network settings, including the wireless network, mobile network, and Bluetooth connections. Go to the Settings app on your Android device and go to ‘Backup & reset’. Go to ‘Network settings reset’ option in the menu. There will be a ‘Reset Settings’ button. Press it and wait for the process to complete. After completion, go back to the Wi-Fi menu and try connecting again. You will not lose any important data during this reset, but all the network details will be erased.
Sometimes the issue can be resolved by ensuring that your phone software is up to date. If you delay the update, you might face Wi-Fi disconnection issues. Go to the Settings app on your Android device and go down to the ‘About Phone’ tab. You will see a menu option called ‘System Updates’ or ‘Updates’. It will show the available updates for your device. In some Android devices, there is a separate System Updates tab in the Settings menu or a separate app. If a software update is available, download and install it, then reboot your device. After you are done installing the updates, try connecting again to see if the Android Wi-Fi authentication error has been resolved. Otherwise, try the next option.
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Get custom essayIf everything else fails, try the factory reset option. It will get rid of all the Android apps, network settings, and data from your phone. One of these could be the culprit behind the problem. Before proceeding, ensure that your personal data is backed up. Go to Settings > Backup & reset > Factory data reset. After doing the above, go back to the Settings app and try connecting again. If the problem persists despite trying all the proposed solutions above, you might need professional help. Take your device to an authorized service center and get it checked for hardware and software problems that could be causing the connection issues.
When we think about author and reader in tandem, a question or issue often comes immediately to a head: should the reader’s interpretation of a text take precedence over authorial authority? This question seems particularly pertinent with regards to both Tennyson and Keats’ poems which draw upon Homer’s writings in various ways for their own purposes. The idea of echoing is particularly helpful in relation to the two texts, where ‘echo’ refers to a repetition or replication of an original thing over a period of time, which becomes distorted and changed in this repetition. In the echo, the author is often lost; an idea that both Tennyson and Keats are exploring in their respective poems.Whilst the speaker in ‘On First…’ experiences an epiphany thanks to Chapman’s echo of Homer, Ulysses’ name is echoed through time but has left the ageing man behind, no longer fitting what the name ‘Ulysses’ has come to signify.
Get original essayIndeed, names are of great importance in both poems, particularly ‘Homer’ in Keats’ sonnet and ‘Ulysses’ in Tennyson’s work. ‘Ulysses’ is a character who has been recycled throughout literature’s history, and Tennyson joins the ranks of writers who borrow Homer’s (though Latinated here) character here. However, what is unusual about his depiction of Ulysses here is that he does not correspond to the daring, heroic portrait most readers are accustomed to. Rather, he is a ‘grey spirit;’ and an ‘idle king’ who has ceased to do anything of great note or excitement. There is a tension in the poem between this reality and the Ulysses who was famed for his perilous expeditions around the globe, which Ulysses the man is painfully aware of, commenting of his people ‘they know not me’, and lamenting ‘I am become a name’. These two lines are particularly illuminating in terms of the man Ulysses’ attachment to the legendary figure which his name presupposes. His assertion that his people don’t know him, yet his name retains great prestige highlights the detachment of ‘author’ from ‘work’ in a broad sense, as the name ‘Ulysses’ has acquired a kind of autonomy of its own with heroic attributes awarded to it. Because Ulysses the man no longer fits this mold, Tennyson imagines the man becoming separated from the travels he went on as the author becomes separated from the text once the reader echoes their thoughts in an individual way; it would be easy to forget that Ulysses is not originally Tennyson’s character when Homer’s name appears nowhere in the poem. The ‘charm’ of the poem lies in Tennyson’s extension of Homer’s character and the self aware imagining that Ulysses could envision his name echoed through literature and history whilst he outgrew and became separated from it.
The levels in Keats’ sonnet are slightly more complex than in Tennyson’s poem. The speaker describes the experience of reading Chapman’s version of Homer’s work. Of particular interest is the title, ‘On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer’, where Chapman syntactically possesses Homer and thus is awarded a position of power and prestige over him, and indeed the speaker describes Chapman’s voice as ‘loud’, reaching him in a way that Homer did not. On lines five and six, ‘of one wide expanse had I been told/That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne’, the speaker addresses the assumption that the original text, attributed to the original author should take ultimate priority. ‘Deep-browed’ and ‘rule’ create the impression of the author aggressively regulating the work, with ‘had I been told’ expressing the idea that such a ‘rule’ is the standard way in which texts are treated. Where the author (Homer in this case) rules over the text with an iron fist, it is clear that the reader cannot ‘make’ the text for themselves or experience the feeling of discovery. As the speaker in ‘On First…’ describes, ‘Much have I travell’d in the realms of hold, affirming that they had ‘travelled’ in Homer’s work but were unable to discover anything new or exciting because of Homer’s presence. On the contrary, Chapman’s adaptations, freeing the texts from the shackles of the author, allowed the speaker to experience the text on their own terms, where the real charm lies. And this is not merely an access issue in which the speaker was unable to understand Homer, as we see the speaker describe the experience of ‘hearing’ Chapman as like being ‘a watcher of the skies/When a new planet swims into his ken.’ The speaker is not simply told something under Homer’s rule, but is able to discover something new in Chapman’s writing.
We see, then, in both poems an eroding the authority of the author; a process which in action allows a text to be made constantly new and enjoyable with each new reading and individual reader. Both, as Barthes would suggest, enact a “death” of the original author.
King Lear, as both head of state and paterfamilias, has multiple claims to power, and to obedience. His spectacle of dividing the kingdom between his daughters confuses their obligations to him as subjects with their filial obligations, duties which are not necessarily equivalent. Cordelia cannot play both roles at once; she favors her role as daughter over her duty to her father as a subject in his kingdom. The duty that Lear expects can only be acquitted by speaking. Cordelia damns herself by being unable to speak what is expected. Kent, an alternate model of loyalty in the play, incurs Lear's wrath by speaking too plainly. Kent's loyalty - which distinguishes itself from obedience - demonstrates the suspicious attitude the play has of speech. He departs from the forms of affection that attempt to measure loyalty in terms of simple, spoken complaisance.
Get original essayA corollary of Kent's distrust of rhetoric seems to be his attention to physical presence, his dependence on optical proof. This model of knowledge allows Kent to seem nearly prescient in recognizing the deception of Lear's elder daughters. It also contributes to an important part of his service to the King; looking past the words, spoken in madness, by Lear, he can tend to his Lear's body, like a doctor. Kent subjection is dramatized, he "did [Lear] service/ Improper for a slave" (5.3.219-20), but this service is not servility. Kent's loyalty to Lear is not founded on the hierarchical implications of the feudal state, but rather persists because Kent measures an equivalence between his body and his King's.
Kent's model of loyalty is a foil to Cordelia's; similar in kind, but more difficult to explain because it is not blood-based. Kent's manner of sustaining his allegiance to the King is a neat paradox. It is enacted as a pantomime - a subversive act of disobedience. Only by giving up his name and identity, thus any pre-existing expectations or debts, can he fulfill his duty to Lear. Thus, when Kent, in disguise as Caius, he must "raze" his identity. Kent takes special care to modify his language: "If but as well I other accents borrow,/ That can my speech defuse, my good intent/ May carry" (1.4.1-3). One of the attributes he assigns himself is that he can "deliver a plain message bluntly" (1.4.30). This care to modify language is intimated in Edgar's relation to his father, which parallels Kent's pantomime to Lear: as Tom O'Bedlam, he can offer solace, but he must take care to cut his language from coarser cloth. The location of truth in rough language reflects the puzzle of the sense found in Lear's rants - "O, matter and impertinency mixed!/ Reason in madness!" Edgar exclaims, hearing the former king speak (4.6.168-9).
In giving up his claims to nobility, however, Kent emphasizes his masculinity. Femininity, throughout King Lear, is linked to treason, madness, and inconstancy. Cordelia is the exception that proves the rule: hearing of her father's condition, she is moved, but "not to a rage"(4.3.15). She is primarily reasonable. Kent's insistence on his manhood, over any refinement, is a benchmark of his steadiness. When Lear asks him to identify himself, he is simply, "A man, sir" (1.4.10) and "That which/ Ordinary men are fit for, I am qualified in" (1.4.30-1). The values that he attributes to himself are the stoic opposite of the effusive, effeminate language and action of the courtiers. He is an aggressive, soldierly fellow. He, thus, cannot help but assault the foppish Oswald: "Having more man than wit about me, [I] drew [my sword]" (2.4.41).
"Wit", mental lability, would permit him to countenance insubordination, under the guise of diplomacy. It is important to note that Kent is not naturally impetuous, like Hotspur, but can also assume the courtier's role, different modes of address. His allegiance is not to courtly forms, however, but to the overall good of the state, that is, the King. In the first scene of the drama - Kent addresses the king, "Good my liege -" (1.1.120) but before he can begin, is interrupted by Lear's rash oath of resolution to reward the kingship to Albany and Cornwall. Kent, resuming his address to the king, speaks in the same sort of language that Lear seems to want, the language of obligation and deference: "Royal Lear,/ Whom I have ever honored as my king,/ Loved as my father, as my master followed,/ As my great patron thought on in my prayers -" (1.1.139-142). King, father, master, patron - note that each title contains its own independent set of demands and obligations.
At this point Lear interrupts him: "The bow is bent and drawn, make from the shaft" (1.1.143). Lear urges Kent to get to the point; he expresses impatience with the same language, the same deferential mode of address he demanded from his daughters. This dismissive gesture is worth noting - it proves that Lear is not merely a fool for pretty language, but relishes the power he has to demand it. Kent's words also prefigure his later address to Cornwall, which is a parody of courtier's language (2.2.97-99).
Kent is Lear's subject - a position that we will learn to regard with suspicion throughout the play, where being a servant, being in agreement, is treacherous. It is a nice paradox - when obeisance seems most complete, it is most unlikely. It is almost as though the severance of political allegiance - as with the severance of Cordelia's filial obligations - is necessary to elicit a demonstration of true loyalty. Thus even Kent's honorific figures of address, however earnest, will do nothing to mediate the content of the message, and thus are extraneous. Kent notices this, and he seizes upon the language of the arrow and target that Lear introduces. "Let it [the arrowhead] fall, though the fork invade/ The region of my heart" (1.1.144-5), he implores, and later, "Let me still remain/ The true blank of thine eye" (1.1.158-9). This language is apposite. Kent, whose life is staked on the king, finds this martial metaphor suitable to the sacrifice to truth and for Lear that he must undergo. It is almost as if, certain that he cannot assuage Lear's wrath, he must deflect it. Lear's utterance in (1.1.143) could also reflect that, just as an arrow, about to be fired, will inevitably be unleashed upon its course with "hideous rashness" (1.1.151), so he cannot reverse the judgement on Cordelia he has already given. Kent picks up this sense - thus his entreaties, which he must suspect shall be bootless.
In his attempted deflection, his attempt at reversal, he dramatizes the "untender" fault of Cordelia: "Be Kent unmannerly,/ When Lear is mad" (1.1.146). Kent means that Lear's foolish actions demand a rude chastisement, uncloaked by courtly circumlocutions. But in the parallel that Kent draws between his stance and Lear's behavior, Kent presages what will be a clear result: Lear's madness. This madness, which has something hysterical, unmanly about it, demands the "unmannerliness" - which in its aural similarity to "unmanliness" clearly references emasculation - of Kent to counter its effects. In the close relation between manner and manhood, Kent must take the strictest measures in his treatment of Lear.
Lear's "madness" shall eventually render him powerless; his rashness is the motive of his elder daughters for seizure of the state. Consequently, as Lear is the source of their authority, his dethroning strips his retainers of their proprietary power. Thus, Kent addresses Lear according to his new state, according to how his unfaithful daughters and sons will see him, "What wilt thou do, old man?" (1.1.146). He is an equal, a mortal, but in this admission, there is the possibility of tenderness.
Perhaps the most apposite description Kent's bond with Lear is the one that springs from this new equivalence of state: the relationship between physician and patient. This is a complicated relationship. Though the physician is in the employ of the patient, the patient must obey the physician. "Kill thy physician, and the fee bestow/ Upon thy foul disease" (1.1.164-5). But there is more to this metaphor than the shifting base of power it implies. Kent also seems to acquire many of the methods and attributes of a physician in his treatment of Lear.
Kent emphasizes physical fact as the root of truth, in much the same way that a doctor relies on empirical data to draw diagnoses. "I do profess to be no less than I seem" (1.4.12). Likewise, the reason he gives for wanting to join Lear's retinue is visual: "You have that in your countenance which I/ would fain call master?Authority" (1.4.24-5, 27). Authority, then, is something intrinsic, something that cannot be obliterated by removal of title. Following this principle, Oswald's offense can be described: "His countenance likes me not" (2.2.82). There is something intrinsic to Oswald's aspect that is disagreeable to Kent. It is in the mutability of it, (2.2.64-77), that its ability change, "with every gale and vary of their masters,/ Knowing nought, like dogs, but following" (2.2.71-71). His "blind" obedience has no stable ground, no determinable characteristics.
Remember also that Kent becomes a member of Lear's retinue. Lear's men are an extension of himself, as they are the only remnant of his authority that he has retained. However, as such, they are purely vestigial, and become a source of weakness, in the possibility of their removal. When Goneril and Regan start curtailing his retinue - they are not only doing away with a creature comfort but also, in a truly malicious sense, chopping at his own body. It is a physical trespass to curtail his retinue - and limiting it thrusts him literally into the cold.
Kent identifies himself with this bodily extension of the King. When he comes to Lear in disguise, he claims he is "as poor as the king" (1.4.17). His state is directly dependent upon that of the king, his authority derives directly from it. So, any act taken against Kent becomes one against Lear. In protesting being put in stocks by Cornwall, "I serve the king;?You shall?show too bold malice/ Against the grace and person of my master,/ Stocking his messenger" (2.2.120-4). This is a clear violation - to Lear it is almost beyond belief (2.4.14-21). But it is the confirmation of Regan, as well as Goneril's betrayal. He has almost succeeded in convincing himself that Regan and Cornwall are indeed indisposed, when he lays his eyes on Kent in the stocks. "This act persuades me/ That this remonition of the duke and her/ Is practice only" (2.4.107-9).
Kent, exquisitely aware of the continuity of his self with the king's, pays an exceptional amount of care to Lear's bodily comforts. When Kent initially identified himself as a physician, he meant, metaphorically, a physician to the health of the state. However, Lear's body is coterminal with the state, in the sense that the King is the embodiment of the state. Kent's solicitousness for the King's body is also a representation and literalization of the oath he has made - to give his life for the king. Like Cordelia, Kent constitutes his obligation to Lear as fundamental to his being, inseparable from his life.
Kent, unable to address the injustice done to the King's unsettled mind, tends to its outward correspondence, the king's health. Kent, wise to rhetoric, can see through the deception behind Lear's office: "They told me I was everything. 'Tis a lie, I am not/ Ague-proof" (4.6.102-3). Flattery, the prize of power, cannot shield the body from mortal facts. Throughout 3.4 he directs Lear to shelter, to warmth, tries to create comfort for him in exile. Lear makes a speech directed towards the "great gods", as though any imprecation to them can stop the rain from falling (3.2.47-58). Kent's response? "Alack, bare-headed?" (3.2.58) and tries to shield him from the storm. "Will you lie down and rest upon the cushions?" (3.6.30). He is tender. His care is directed towards the age of the body of the king; his attention is nearly parental towards the "child-changed king." This tenderness is perhaps influenced by his recognition that: "Nothing almost sees miracles/ But misery" (2.2.157-8). Otherwise, there would be the threat of falling into the same sort of despair as Lear.
In the same way that Kent puts his body at the king's disposal, so he puts his heart. "Wil't break my heart?" the king says, almost apropos of nothing, entering shelter. "I had rather break mine own" (3.4.5-6), Kent responds. The cruel limitation here is, of course, that Kent cannot transfer his body, or his relative youth, to the king. The king's fear of death, his resistance to mortality, cannot be assuaged by others putting their bodies at his disposal. He is physically affected by Lear's tragedy: "his grief grew puissant, and the strings of life/ Began to crack" (5.3.215-6) as he retells, and relives, the story. Later, at Lear's death, "break, heart; I prithee, break!" (5.3.311) he cries to himself, but death is not responsive to human fiats. Finally, the only avenue left to Kent is to guard Lear's passing ghost, an insubstantial role: "Vex not his ghost. O, let him pass! He hates him much/ that would upon the rack of this tough world/ stretch him longer." (5.3.312-4).
Lear's madness repeats the effects of its cause - it prevents him from discriminating between friend and foe. Lear's acknowlegement of Kent at the end is one in madness. "[Lear] knows not what he says" (5.3.293) and cannot give thanks, or express gratitude. That would be unnecessary, though. Duty is precisely the thing that cannot be conveyed in terms of reciprocal value. It is non-fungible. To try to transfer it to other terms transforms it into something different - a mere exchange, economic. Thus, when Cordelia thanks Kent for his service to her father, he assures her that he shall be given exactly the amount of thanks that he needs - that the deed itself fulfills its own cost. "To be acknowledged, madam, is o'erpaid./ All my reports go with the modest truth;/ No more clipped, but so." (4.7.4-6). Acknowledgement would create a debt, and that image of perpetual repayment, of perpetually being in debt, is contrary to both filial duty, and to the duty in humanity that Kent exercises towards Lear.
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Get custom essayPerhaps this is an explanation for Kent's enigmatic refusal of the throne at the end. His parting words speak of obedience: "I have a journey, sir, shortly to go;/ My master calls me, I must not say no" (5.3.320-1). Who his master is here is unclear. Most likely, Kent means that he shall even follow Lear into death, that his journey is to the next life. However, the double negative, "I must not say no," reflects the manner of his compliance throughout the play - it is not a mere assent, but allows for modification. Thus it could mean a less morbid continuation of service, a tending to the exigencies of mortal life, a way of life not available to those in the position of ultimate power.
The Author’s craft among the story “Everyday Use” uses transition and flashbacks as a result of throughout the story someone is either puzzling over the past or puzzling over the long run.
Get original essayIn 'Everyday Use,' Alice Walker stresses the importance of the main character's heritage. She employs varied ways that during which to reveal many aspects of heritage that unit of measurement otherwise arduous to be noticed. In the story, she introduces a pair of sisters with nearly opposite personalities and altogether completely different views on heritage: Maggie and Dee. She uses the excellence between the two sisters signifies but one got to accept and preserve one's heritage. On the so much aspect, the excellence between a pair of sisters there exists the decide figure mama, the teller, and additionally Dee's irony.
The irony of Dee's opinion is that the key to understanding the story and why the mother let Maggie keep the quilts, that symbolize the heritage. Another example of Dee's confusion relating to her own African-American heritage is expressed once she announces to her mother and sister that she has changed her name to 'Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo.' once her mother queries her relating to the change, Dee says, 'I couldn't bear it to any extent additional being named once the parents that oppress me”. In step together with her mother, the name has been among the family since before the war and presumptively represents family unity to her.
However, Dee does not perceive that. Apparently, she believes that by dynamic her name she is expressing commonness together with her African ancestors and rejecting the oppression understood by the fascinating of yank names by black slaves. Walker's browse is unbelievably clear at the tip of the story. By Dee desperate to droop the family heirloom on the wall to look at from a distance, she is antagonistic herself from her family heritage. That is exactly what Walker thinks is that the incorrect issue to do and do. Walker would favor the quilts to be used and integrated into existence, like Maggie and her mother like. An identical set up applies to all or any or any of the alternative home things that Dee has her eye on the churn high, dasher, and benches for the table that her begetter created. All of the units of measurement a part of life for Maggie and her mother. Walker believes that the only real value that they hold for Dee is that they may be sensible trinkets to signifiy off in her house.
By exploitation the quilts throughout this symbolic manner, Walker is making the aim that family heirlooms can entirely have which means if they still are connected to the culture they sprang from - in essence, to be placed to 'Everyday Use.' It is not correct to want sides to come to a decision on between Mama and Dee. Every one of the units of measurement corrects and each of the units of measurement wrong once it involves specific areas of their lives and their worldview. Mama cannot force her daughters to be like her – uneducated and living in a mud hut. On the alternative hand, it's wrong for Dee to chop back everything into intellectual writing. She knew the worth of the quilts from a historical and analytical perspective but she is unable to signify her mother and sister what amount she respects the spiritual and emotional price of those quilts. every mother and feminine offspring ought to learn to live among this time whereas not forgetting where they came from.
The variations in perspective that Dee and Maggie portray relating to their heritage unit of measurement seen early among the story. once the family's house burned down ten or twelve years were gone, Maggie was deeply packed with the tragedy of losing her home where she grew up. Dee, on the alternative hand, detested the house. Her mother had wanted to boost her, 'Why don't you dance around the ashes'. Dee did not hold any significance in the house where she had big up.
Nowaday’s demand for power generation is increasing. Therefore control system requirements are also increasing. In this paper boiler is operated using many control strategies so that resultant operation will be practically implemented for industrial purpose. In this experiment the electrically heated boiler and pipe in pipe type heat exchanger is used. Electrically heated boilers make use of electric current running through a heating element to create heat, to boil water into high-temperature and high-pressure steam. To test better Controllability pipe in pipe type counter current heat exchanger. During first phase the installation, calibration and testing for all transmitters and actuators are completed. By making a system available to programming logic controllers, distributed control system as well as to simulation softwares phase. Multiple control ends are achieved. Pilot plants are controlled using user friendly frontends. In this different control strategies are used such as PLC,DCS, MATLAB as well as virtual PLC and DCS with local controllers without any compromise in safety.
Get original essayAutomation is the use of machines, control systems and information technologies to optimize productivity in the production of goods and services. Beyond that possible with current human labor levels so as to realize economies of scale, and realize predictable quality levels.[10] In the present world of rapid technological changes there is an urgent demand for the very best quality products . The automation and simulation of this project is being done with the help of PLC. Programmable logic controllers have been an integral part of factory automation as well as industrial process control.[9] As we know power demands are increasing unit operations should be handled with good amount of efficiency and control to save energy and enhance production quality and quantity.
Controllers like Programmable Logic Controllers, Distributed Control Systems and simulation tools and test control strategies are available to control pilot plants. We have comparative studies of different class of control strategies and different class of controllers. We are having two pilot plants boiler and heat exchanger. The boiler is an electrical boiler operated at 3.5bar pressure at 1350C temperature giving steam of 30kg=hr. This Steam is utilized in Heat Exchanger which is of pipe in pipe type and operated in counter current flow of fluids .Both pilot plants are well equipped with transmitters and actuators of industry grade. The boiler drum contains water which is electrically heated with a PWM controller and generates steam at 4 bar and 144C. The water for heating is pumped from a boiler feed water tank using a positive displacement pump.
The boiler drum made up contains water which is electrically heated with a PWM controller and generates steam at 4 bar and 144C. The water for heating is pumped from a boiler feed water tank using a positive displacement pump. The steam generated Flows towards the heat exchanger through an equal percentage globe valve which controls the steam flow. The heat exchanger being of tubular counter flow type, water to be heated is pumped from a cold water tank from the other end using a centrifugal pump. The condensate formed in the heat exchanger during heat transfer is collected in a separate condensate tank. The hot water is collected in hot water tank which also be either mixed in the cold water tank or can be added partially/fully to the feed to the boiler to change the feed water temperature.
A boiler is a closed vessel usually made of stainless steel in which water or other fluid is heated. Electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements.
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another. The media may be separated by a solid wall, so that they never mix, or they may be in direct contact. There are two primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends.
Sensors and transmitters
The transducer measures a process variable while the transmitter transmits the data to the controller as a 4-20 mA current signal.
The final control element adjusts the amount of energy/mass that goes into or out from process as commanded by the controller.
Following are the final control elements used in the plant:
a. Positive displacement pump for feeding boiler feed water : The speed of the motor and in turn feed flow is changed using variable frequency drive.
b. Centrifugal pump for feeding cold water to heat exchanger: The speed of the motor and in turn feed flow is changed using variable frequency drive.
c. Equal percentage globe control valve for manipulating steam flow current signal from controller is converted to pneumatic signal using an I/P converter which decides the valve opening.
d. Solenoid valve which has 2 positions (open or close): Opening of the valve allows mixing of hot water with the cold water feed for heat exchanger as well as changing the boiler feed water temperature.
These components ensure process safety which generally refers to the prevention of unintentional releases of chemicals, energy, or other potentially dangerous materials (including steam) during the course of process that can have a serious effect to the plant and environment. Process safety involves, for example, the prevention of leaks, spills, equipment malfunction, over-pressures, over-temperatures, corrosion, metal fatigue and other similar conditions.
Following instruments are included to keep process variables under safe limit as well as provide alarms interlocks to automatically take necessary action:
a. Pressure switch and temperature switch : Shuts o_ the boiler if drum pressure/temperature exceeds 4 bar/144 deg C.
b. Low level switches: For the boiler drum this switch, shuts off the heater if there is no water in the drum. For other tanks these switches are used to avoid dry running of pumps if there is nothing to pump in the tanks.
c. High level switches provided to the cold water and hot water tanks to avoid overflow of liquid.
Variable tag and input output range of devices with unit
Above figure shows how networking is done so that user can have multiple options to control. Local PLC provide two serial ports (one with RS232 and other RS232/485) and Ethernet port utilizing MODBUS and Ethernet IP protocols. As shown in Fig.4 we communicate PC where MATLAB and server for VPLC and VDCS resides with MODBUS RTU with RS232 serial protocol.DCS is communicated through MODBUS RTU with RS485 as make of local PLC and DCS are different and we aim to have daisy chaining for other pilot plants. As contrologix PLC is connected with Ethernet IP protocol and communicated through messaging.
To provide a solution, ideas are tested and verified on pilot plants as they represent a down scaled version of industrial process plants. According to this practice, pilot plants are experimented for various control strategies and a solution is given to professional world in order to implement that specific strategy to industry grade process plants. One step ahead of this, we make pilot plants available to control from variety of controllers like Programmable Logic Controllers, Distributed Control Systems and simulation tools and test control strategies. We can have comparative studies not only in class of control strategies but also in class of different controllers. Acknowledgment I am very thankful of Prof. S. D. Agashe for his ideas and guidance. Without his motivation and guidance this work would have been impossible. He always answered my questions and helped me out when I was stuck with a problem.