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Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Topic analysis
3. References

Introduction

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health disorder that will impact roughly 8% of the U.S. adult population at some point in their lives. This statistic does not represent the millions of individuals who experience trauma every year, and do not go on to develop PTSD symptoms. According to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD, “15% to 43% of girls and 14% to 43% of boys go through at least one trauma. Of those children and teens who have experienced trauma, 3% to 15% of girls and 1% to 6% of boys develop PTSD”.

Topic analysis

PTSD develops after an individual experiences or witnesses a life threatening event such as a natural disaster, motor vehicle accident, combat, or physical and sexual assault. It is important to note that some traumatic experiences, such as sexual and physical assault, have the propensity to result in PTSD symptoms more than other traumatic events. PTSD is characterized by recurrent flashbacks of the traumatic event, hypervigilance, and avoidance of reminders of the traumatic event (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Studies have shown that the intense emotional experiences associated with psychological trauma can have long term consequences on cognitive processes including memory, planning, problem solving, and attention. With such a large percentage of the population experiencing trauma and developing PTSD symptoms, the focus of this essay is to understand how PTSD impacts our cognitive processes, as well as what treatment methods have been found to be effective in attenuating the impact PTSD has on cognitive function.

Cognitive theories of stress and PTSD have been used extensively to understand stress and trauma injuries, and the interplay between emotion and cognition with symptoms of PTSD. Researcher Ronnie Janoff-Bulman, in her shattered assumptions theory, explored the impact trauma has on cognition and behavior. She posited that traumatic experiences damage three fundamental assumptions people hold about the world: the world is benevolent, the self is worthy, and the world is meaningful (1989).

When these existing self and word schemas are shattered, individuals experience a cognitive dilemma to either integrate their traumatic or negative experience into their prior assumptions or revise their old assumptions (1989). Experiencing a violation that goes against one’s beliefs leads to emotions such as shame, guilt, sadness, and anger, and can cause the individual to attribute false or inaccurate beliefs to the event such as “I am not safe anywhere” or “I’ll never be able to relate to people again. These false beliefs can impact the way individuals perceive future experiences, as the lens they now view the world from is colored by insecurity, danger, self-questioning, and threat (Figley, 1985).

According to cognitive theories of stress and PTSD, prior experiences of trauma can have a significant influence on new experiences and cause a person to interpret situations more negatively. Research examining the impact of trauma on a person’s assumptions about themselves and the world showed that individuals who experience trauma have significantly more negative basic assumptions and were significantly more depressed when compared to non-victims, even years after the traumatic experience occurred (Janoff-Bulman, 1989). Therefore, emotional stress can change the cognitive networks that help us process information about the meaning we apply to situations, our perception of our environment, and our responses to stumli.

PTSD symptoms have been linked to dysfunction in the amygdala, hippocampus, and the prefrontal cortex. The amygdala is located in the middle of our temporal lobe. Its function is to help detect various threats in the environment and activate the sympathetic nervous system, our “fight or flight” response, to help us react to perceived threats in our environment. The hippocampus is a brain area involved in learning and long-term memory. The hippocampus is particularly vulnerable to stress.

In addition, the amygdala helps us store new threat-related or emotional memories. The prefrontal cortex is located in the frontal lobe, right behind the forehead. Its function is to help regulate attention, awareness, and emotions, initiate conscious voluntary behavior, make decisions, determine the meaning and emotional significance of events, and inhibit or correct dysfunctional reactions. During situations that our brain perceives to be threatening, our amygdala activates our “fight or flight” response, releasing adrenaline, norepinephrine, and glucose to prepare our brain and body for action.

If the threat continues, the amygdala will communicate with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to release cortisol, while the middle part of the prefrontal cortex will assess the threat and decide to either heighten or decrease the “fight or flight” response. While this is a normal brain response to a threat, those with PTSD have been found to have a somewhat altered brain response to threatening situations.

PTSD impacts multiple brain and body functions. Those who have PTSD respond with a hyper reactive amygdala and a less activated medial prefrontal cortex in response to a threat. While the amygdala reacts excessively to a potential threat, the medial prefrontal cortex is blunted in its ability to accurately respond to the threatening stimuli. The over reactive amygdala, as a result, releases more norepinephrine in response to the threat, which is underregulated by the prefrontal cortex.

Additionally, an increased amount of cortisol is released by those with PTSD in response to stressors. However, a decrease in cortisol levels has been found to be associated with chronic PTSD. As a result of these different functions, individuals with PTSD become over-reactive to fear cues and thus their neural networks regarding fear become highly saturated and accessible, responding in default to even minimally stressful events. This has implications for the way information is both encoded and retrieved.

Cognitive impairment (CI) has been found to be linked with PTSD symptoms. The exact mechanisms through which these two constructs are related still allude researchers. However, multiple studies examining those who have been exposed to traumatic events and subsequently developed PTSD have shown CI.

Researchers have described PTSD as a disorder of memory impairment. Intrusive memories, such as flashbacks, and impoverished memory functioning, such as trauma-related amnesia and fragmentation of memories, are two types of memory disturbances that have been linked to trauma survivors. Those with PTSD, compared to other trauma survivors without PTSD, have shown deficiencies in their general declarative memory for information not related to their trauma, and an enhanced memory for trauma-related information.

Declarative memory, sometimes referred to as explicit memory, consists of information and events that can be consciously recalled. These findings suggest that trauma-related input interferes with our brains ability to properly encode and retrieve neutral information. Deficiencies in both short-term and delayed declarative memory have been found in veterans, rape victims with PTSD, adult survivors of child abuse, and among children and adolescents with PTSD. Additionally, literature suggests that verbal memory may be more greatly impacted than visual memory for those with PTSD. In a large meta-analysis examining verbal memory specifically, verbal memory was shown to be significantly correlated with PTSD in adults. These findings are important when considering areas of focus for PTSD treatment.

In congruence with cognitive theories of PTSD, researchers and clinicians have agreed that PTSD impacts an individual’s cognitive functioning in that attention becomes involuntarily biased toward environmental cues that are reminders of a traumatic event. PTSD, when compared to other emotion related disorders, was found to have the greatest degree of attentional bias associated with it. Among crime victims with acute PTSD, a significant attentional bias towards threat-related words was found when participants completed the Stroop task. Similar results have been found for OEF/OIF war veterans, and children and adolescents with PTSD. Additionally, trauma-related Stroop interference has been shown to be positively correlated with PTSD symptom severity. These results suggest that for someone with PTSD, their attention is more captivated by trauma-related material, and it is more difficult for them to disengage from perceived trauma-related stimuli.

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PTSD has also been shown to negatively influence an individual’s problem-solving ability. Specifically, higher PTSD scores have been found to predict poorer problem-solving skills. One hypothesis for why PTSD results in declines in problem solving skills is due to the fact that those with PTSD have an overgeneralized autobiographical memory, which leads individuals to have less experiences to call upon when trying to effectively solve a problem. More research is needed to understand the mechanisms that facilitate this association, however, it is an important deficit to understand when working clinically with PTSD.

References

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2. Ashley, V., Honzel, N., Larsen, J., Justus, T., & Swick, D. (2013). Attentional bias for trauma- related words: exaggerated emotional Stroop effect in Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans with PTSD. BMC psychiatry, 13(1), 86.
3. Bremner, J. D. (2006). Traumatic stress: effects on the brain. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 8(4), 445.
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5. Clouston, S. A., Kotov, R., Pietrzak, R. H., Luft, B. J., Gonzalez, A., Richards, M., ... & Bromet, E. J. (2016). Cognitive impairment among World Trade Center responders: Long-term implications of re-experiencing the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Alzheimer's & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring, 4, 67-75.
6. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour research and therapy, 38(4), 319-345.
7. Elzinga, B. M., & Bremner, J. D. (2002). Are the neural substrates of memory the final common pathway in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?. Journal of affective disorders, 70(1), 1-17. Figley, C. R. (1985). Trauma and its wake: Vol. 1. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
8. Fleurkens, P., Rinck, M., & van Minnen, A. (2011). Specificity and generalization of attentional bias in sexual trauma victims suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of anxiety disorders, 25(6), 783-787.
9. Greenberg, M. (Sep. 29, 2018). How PTSD and Trauma Affect Your Brain Functioning. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-mindful-self express/201809/how-ptsd-and-trauma-affect-your-brain-functioning
10. Hayes, J. P., LaBar, K. S., McCarthy, G., Selgrade, E., Nasser, J., Dolcos, F., & Morey, R. A. (2011). Reduced hippocampal and amygdala activity predicts memory distortions for trauma reminders in combat-related PTSD. Journal of psychiatric research, 45(5), 660- 669.
11. Hayes, J. P., VanElzakker, M. B., & Shin, L. M. (2012). Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Frontiers in integrative neuroscience, 6, 89.
12. Horowitz, M. J. (2001). Stress response syndromes (4th ed.). Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson Incorporated.
13. Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989). Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social cognition, 7(2), 113-136.
14. Johnsen, G. E., & Asbjørnsen, A. E. (2008). Consistent impaired verbal memory in PTSD: a meta-analysis. Journal of affective disorders, 111(1), 74-82.
15. Kasckow, J., Brown, C., Morse, J., Begley, A., Bensasi, S., & Reynolds III, C. F. (2012). Post? traumatic stress disorder symptoms in emotionally distressed individuals referred for a depression prevention intervention: Relationship to problem?solving skills. International journal of geriatric psychiatry, 27(11), 1106-1111.
16. Kendall-Tackett, K. A. (2000). Physiological correlates of childhood abuse: chronic hyperarousal in PTSD, depression, and irritable bowel syndrome. Child abuse & neglect, 24(6), 799- 810.
17. Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, M. R., Doost, H. N., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (1999). Performance of children and adolescents with PTSD on the Stroop colour-naming task. Psychological Medicine, 29(2), 415-419.
18. Nash, W. P., & Figley, C. R. (2007). Combat stress injury: Theory, research, and management. New York.
19. Paller, K.A. (2009). Memory Consolidation: Systems. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/declarative-memory
20. Paunovic, N., Lundh, L. G., & Öst, L. G. (2002). Attentional and memory bias for emotional information in crime victims with acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of anxiety disorders, 16(6), 675-692.
21. Southwick, S. M., Bremner, J. D., Rasmusson, A., Morgan III, C. A., Arnsten, A., & Charney, D. S. (1999). Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological psychiatry, 46(9), 1192-1204.
22. Sutherland, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2008). Social problem solving and autobiographical memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(1), 154-161. U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD. (2018). How common is PTSD in Adults? Retrieved from https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/common/common_adults.asp
23. Williams, J. M. G., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120(1), 3-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033- 2909.120.1.3

Athena, the goddess of wisdom, rose from Zeus’ head clad in full armor. Zeus had swallowed his wife Metis in fear that she would give birth to a son that would overthrow him as he had overthrown his father Kronos. Athena was frequently thought of as a man because she did not take care of her looks like the other goddesses did. Inventor of the ax, plow and ox yoke and patroness of Athens, Athena was an eternal virgin. In contrast, Venus is the goddess of sensual love and rose from the foam of the sea already as a nubile. Born from Uranus’ genitals, Venus was known to be unfaithful and used her beauty to cheat many men. Two goddesses, the virgin and the unfaithful woman, that could not be more different from one another, yet through their portrayal in Homer’s The Odyssey and Virgil’s The Aeneid, one begins to note the similarities. Although their personalities shaped their methods in different ways, both Athena and Venus share a common goal to protect the mortals, and must do so under Zeus’ rules.

Though both are empowering goddesses, they must turn their heads to the “father of gods and men (1.344)” in order to confirm the security of their mortals2. In the beginning of The Odyssey, Athena asks, “Did not Odysseus / do you grace by the ships of the Argives, making sacrifice / in wide Troy? Why, Zeus, are you now so harsh with him (1.60-62)” as she implores her father to release Odysseus from Calypso’s clutch.1 In which, Zeus then grants permission to send down Hermes to free Odysseus. Similarly, Venus, “with tears in her shining eyes (1.311)” appeals to Jupiter asking why after the Trojans have gone through much toil that they must “find / the whole world closed to them… (1.317-318)”2 Jupiter ensured her that her mortal, Aeneas, would indeed go on to lead his great fate and that his destiny has remained unchanged. Venus and Athena both knew that should fate have destined Aeneas and Odysseus to ruin then they would be incapable of helping the mortals. Thus they must confirm with Zeus (Jupiter) that the fate of their mortals does not lead to destruction.

Once gaining confirmation, from Zeus, the goddesses descend down to the mortal world to help their mortals. Disguised as “a little maid, carrying a pitcher (7.20),” Athena meets Odysseus outside the Phaeacian walls. There the young girl, Athena, provides information of the etiquette of the people and their Phaeacian ways to Odysseus. After guiding him through the city, Athena tells him the history of the royal family and how to win the favor of the queen. This is similar to when Aeneas stumbles across “a Spartan girl, or like that one of Thrace (1.427),” Venus in disguise, who tells him the history of the ruler, Dido2. She then points Aeneas to the direction of Carthage, “Go on then, where the path leads, go ahead (1.551)” and reveals herself as she goes away. Through disguise the goddesses provide information and advice that would help Odysseus and Aeneas on their epic journey. Though Athena and Venus could have appeared in their god-like forms to guide the mortals, instead they chose to masquerade as mortals—as to why, only the gods know.

Both Athena and Venus share the goal to protect their mortals from more strife, but the methods that they use are distinct from one another. When it comes to manipulation, Athena takes a subtler approach whereas Venus uses a more forthright approach. Athena uses double determination in order to manipulate the humans as when she puts into the head of Ktesippos to throw the foot of an oxen at Odysseus. She never forces mortals into anything, but rather puts thoughts that give them an extra push to do whatever they may not have been entirely inclined to do at first. On the other hand, Venus has no qualms as to forcing women to fall prey to her son’s, Amor’s, arrows of love. This can be seen as when she asks Amor to “breathe invisible fire into her / and dupe her with your sorcery (1.939-940).” Venus uses magic to ignite a burning flame within Dido that would not have occurred without the bewitchment. Athena uses manipulation of the mind while Venus uses enchantments of the heart to safeguard Odysseus and Aeneas.

Another distinction between the two goddesses in each tale is that Athena is driven by the goal to see her mortal, Odysseus, attain greatness and win, while Venus only wishes to see Aeneas happy and flourishing. During Odysseus’ great battle with the suitors, Athena, in the disguise of Mentor, appears to Odysseus for a brief moment before retreating to a top perch and enjoying the show. She never takes it upon herself to slaughter Odysseus’ suitors for she would rather watch her favorite player defeat his enemies. Venus, on the contrary, cannot stop fretting over Aeneas and the journey that he takes. Not only does she ensure that the Carthaginians do not betray Aeneas by forcing Dido to fall into a desperate and fruitless love but also goes so far as to supplicate Hephaistos, god of metal, to make armor for Aeneas as he prepares for battle against the Latins. Even in the Iliad, Venus sweeps Aeneas away from the Trojan battlefield when he is about to face Diomedes, which would have led to his demise. Venus constantly appears to save her son and does everything she can for him. Athena plays a role in Odysseus’ journey so long as she can see her player win, but Venus does everything and anything so that her son may prosper.

Athena is also connected with many aspects of art, music, and creativity, which can be exemplified by her creation of the flute. As mentioned in The Twelfth Pythian Ode, she invents it “upon hearing the lamentations and the sound of the hissing of the serpent hair of the surviving Gorgons, after Perseus had killed their sister, Medusa”. This story demonstrates not only her creativity, but also her musical capabilities, as “she wove into music the dire dirge of the reckless Gorgons which Perseus heard pouring in slow anguish from beneath the horrible snakey hair of the maidens”.

The goddess of wisdom and the goddess of love, the virgin and the nubile, Minerva and Venus, Athena and Aphrodite—with many names the two goddesses could not be more different. And yet, Virgil and Homer show them in parallel in The Aeneid and The Odyssey as the goddesses strive to see their mortals, Odysseus and Aeneas, succeed. They are both bound by the rule of Zeus and both have the inclination to mask themselves before facing their mortals. However, their dispositions do take part in their method of protecting their mortals. As one uses an esoteric tactic to guide her hero to greatness, the other uses a blunt scheme in order to get whatever she thinks is best for her protagonist. Similar yet different, Athena and Venus do as they wish to bring their mortals to victory.

Table of contents

1. Concept of Planning in PC
Short TermLong TermStrategic Planning
2. Conclusion

As we all know that for the success of any organization or anything planning play very important and vital role. The decision making process in PC (Professional Corporations) is decentralized. The model used is dynamic and flexible, whereby the top management takes their time while making decisions and explore and evaluate all the possible alternatives before choosing the rationally economic and feasible solution.

Programmed decisions are made by both the lower and top management with proper consultation with the lower managers while the daily and routine decisions are made by the line managers at the middle level with the prior permission or approval from the general manager. In decision making process manager of a department can take steps to make small planes but these plans but these plans should not be affecting the much to the department.

Concept of Planning in PC

PC uses approximately all horizons for planning including:

• Short term
• Long term
• Strategic planning

Short Term

In PC short term planning means that every manager of a department can take steps to make small planes but these plans should not be affecting the much to the department as planning need some crucial steps, the department manager discuss it with his upper management and also take suggestions from his employees too.

Long Term

The long term planning is more like the strategic planning. When we talk of strategic plan we mean plans that are organization wide, establish overall objectives and position in organization in terms of its environment.

Strategic Planning

Without a strategy the organization is like a ship without a rudder, going around in circles. It’s like a tramp that has no place to go to. “The process of developing and maintaining a strategic fit between the organizations goals and capabilities and its changing marketing opportunities.” It relies on developing a clear mission statement supporting objectives, a sound business portfolio and coordinating functional strategies.

Conclusion

Strategic planning of any business consists of step-by-step stages. The planning itself can be short-term and long-term, divided into points and sub-points. So, this is not a serious thing and if you form a plan correctly, you can achieve success in business.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
AnalysisEvaluationPreparationCollaborationProcessProblem SolvingNegotiationThird party facilitation
2. Conclusion

Introduction

This report is based on the conflict situation experienced at a Technical Service Centre and is aimed at providing recommendations that would be useful in carrying resolution at the centre and preventing future conflict.

Analysis

The conflict that seems to be present is manifest conflict due to observed and open cultural clashes between members of the company. Due to the long history of the conflict not being resolved, it has now prevailed causing the conflict between employees to be more complex. The people that are involved in the conflict are both employees and their employers (employers being the unacknowledged participants). Looking at the history of the employees, some still feel superior to others hence prejudice and discrimination leading to pressure for recognition and values thus maintaining the conflict without resolution. The employers may fear that, if the conflict remains unresolved, productivity level will decrease even further resulting into the company being shut down but if the conflict is resolved the company will grow into a culturally diverse, compatible environment with possibly high morale and motivation. Due to different levels, races and languages there is power imbalance (Tillett and French, 2010)

Evaluation

There exists a sense of interpersonal conflict as well as intragroup conflict. Interpersonal conflict is between two or more people, the experience of conflict, in this case is mainly based on the differences between the employees; they are culturally different from one another, as well as in their ethnicity and their individual levels within the organisation, because of this there could be a difference in opinions which could result in people arguing with one another or even clashing which constitutes a hot conflict. Their constant bickering with one another and gossiping is however making way for intragroup conflict, intragroup conflict occurs within a group.

Preparation

The first thing that we need to do is create an atmosphere that is effective. The second one is clarifying perceptions, such as trying to get all members of the company to have one vision as well as strong organizational culture. Thirdly, we need to look at both collective and individual needs, putting emphasis on collective needs. The fourth step is building positive power by means of focusing on strengthening the morale of the company. The following step is being futuristic and taking lessons from the past, being able to look and plan ahead. The sixth step, creating a valid option, is all about looking for common threads in the situation. The seventh step is about developing stepping stones that lead to action and last but not least is the eighth step which is coming up with a mutually benefiting agreement (Self Help Alliance, 2005).

Collaboration

The grouping of these employees accordingly will enable them to agree on their in-groups problems, which means there will be effective listening because they understand their problems more than outgroups. This is important as each will share their needs and views in their in-group. The groups will be provided with options so to brainstorm and finally agreeing on one thing to solve their conflict.

The best option implemented must therefore be put into practice, perhaps playing roles and training. They must have specific goals for instance, learning about cultural differences in the workplace. (Tillet & French, 2010)

Process

In this regard, grouping of the employees which can be referred to as fractioning because there are underlying conflicts because it is mentioned that they have a long history of conflict that they failed to resolve meaning there are other conflicts arising. When they were grouped into groups sitting together it was an important for them to get comfortable as they are and getting to understand each groups problems with the others. The degree of formality here can be regarded as informal. (Tillet & French, 2010)

Problem Solving

Hicks (2016) states that conflict is a process involving identifying the issues: cultural clashes, understand everyone’ side: sit down with each party if possible and get to understand their side of the story but don’t agree or disagree with whatever they say. List the solutions: brainstorm ideas to combat this conflict, look at the options and choose the best one if the parties agree to reach an agreement, document it and put it in the archives as proof and for future references.

Negotiation

Can be described as an agreement between the conflicting parties that they want to work towards a better relationship’. In this instance we believe that a negotiation would be a waste of time reason being the conflicting parties will have to be interested in solving this conflict for it to work, otherwise the negotiation will not be successful. It is clear from the case study when they enter the room the next day and some employees are angry, others not interested and some there because they felt that they had to be there, that shows there is no cooperation or willingness from either party (Tillet & French, 2010)

Third party facilitation

In cases where an organisation might need a second opinion on a conflict matter, third party facilitators are bought in. In this case, we are the third party facilitators. Facilitators are usually brought in because they are usually not familiar with company politics and are therefore objective in their opinion and only concerned with driving towards the goals of the organisation, which in this case is resolution. According to Fleischer and Zumeta (2005), facilitators oversee the progress of meetings directed towards resolution to try and reduce the amount of tension so that people involved in the conflict are able to communicate effectively about the problems that they have with one another and work together in reaching a consensus.

Conclusion

From our analysis of the conflict using the basic principles of conflict resolution, we have discovered that there are two main issues that the company needs to work on. The first one is effective communication, there is really no communication between the conflicting parties in the technical service center and because of that, there has been a long history of conflict between them. We would recommend an anonymous suggestion box whereby each party will write on a piece of paper what they think the other party should work on to improve their relationship with them.

Secondly, we have seen that it seems management does not do performance appraisals and because of that employees are never praised for their hard work or told what to improve on and that results in the poor production the company is experiencing. So management should try every month to do performance appraisals and even an employee of the month programme to motivate the employees.

The extract I have chosen is taken from Guillermo del Toro’s film Pan’s Labyrinth and I am going to analyze it in terms of its social, geographical and historical context and then focus on how it uses cinematography, sound, editing, genre, mise-en-scene, symbols, narrative structure, themes and motifs.

Pan’s Labyrinth is set in 1936-1939 during the Spanish civil war. The Spanish Civil War was military revolt against the Republican government of Spain, supported by conservative elements within the country. The Nationalists, as the rebels were called, received aid from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Which in the film there was one time when we heard the rebels being called communists. The Republicans received aid from the Soviet Union, as well as from International Brigades, composed of volunteers from Europe and the United States. The republicans were the Captain and his army.

The geographical location of the film’s origin/setting is in Spain. To be more specific it the woodlands. It was near water source it seemed to look like a river.

In the film politics play a huge role in the film there was the Captain and his army who are made to seem like to villain. Causing the viewers to resent them especially when they are attacking the rebels who are nationalists, who are just looking like they want to free their people from the government's oppression. The viewers are instantly found feeling sympathetic to the rebels are being killed in the woods. Also for Mercedes who has to just sit there and see it happen. The film make the rebels look like the victims and the Captain and his army like monsters with no morals. The view side with rebels over the Republicans.

In the film the difference in social classes was very obvious especially in my extract in the captain mansion he had maids and serpent that did work that he needed to be done such as make meals and clean up the house. He had people cleaning the sheets when Ofelia's mom was bleeding during giving birth. The people who are on the top of the social hierarchy are most people who are rich or are high ranking military officials. I also noticed that there were different in status when it came to gender when Ofelia’s mom was telling people the store on how she met the captain he brushed it off to the side and said she didn’t know what she was talking about. Also a lot of the maid/servants were mostly female. While the men were more the military men and the people of power who were at the table at the dinner scene.

Economic status of the characters in the film varies. Ofelia and her mom can from a not so wealthy lifestyle. Her mother was a shoemaker took the business over after her husband died so this kind of lifestyle was new for her and Ofelia. There were also the servants and Mercedes who had humble servant clothes compared to fancy and nice clothes of the captain and his rich friends. The rebel had clothes that looked old and patched up compared to rich characters in the film. The Captain had the highest economic status in the film had a mansion, servant, and a bunch of expensive looking things inside of the mansion.

Del Toro stated that he considers the story to be a parable, influenced by fairy tales, and that it addresses and continues themes related to his earlier film The Devil’s Backbone (2001), to which Pan's Labyrinth is a spiritual successor, according to del Toro in his director’s DVD commentary.

In the film Pan’s Labyrinth mise-en-scenes is a huge part of the film. Mise-en-scene is the arrangement of scenery and stage properties in a film. There many intention things that they do throughout that films for example the rule of thirds is used a lot to draw in the viewers attention to the character face and pay attention to the emotion on their face. There was a part in the film where it was used it was when the Captain was talking with the doctor after he found out he was working with that rebels. When the captain confronted him he was in the top right third of the shot.

This was a great way for the film to capture the anger and malice that was expressed on the Captain’s face. In the same scene it was one of the best moments in the film in which their use lightning the best was the way they lit the Captain’s face half his face was in the light half wasn’t. It had the feel of the lit part of his face is what everyone sees on the surface and dark part was everything under the surface. How he feels inside because of what the doctor did. The use of color in the film was amazing finding the right color for get situation and to bring the viewers deeper into the story and its world.

There were three times in the film when the Captain kills people and the shot is in a blue shade. In my extract the Captain kills the doctor and it helps enforce the feeling of sadness that it invokes because he’s a kind character only trying to help others. It is also raining in the racing in the scene which just adds more to it.

The film also utilizes a bunch of special effects for all the monsters and creatures in the magical world of Ofelia’s. The fairy is one of the first ones that are introduced. The social effects looked very advanced and well done another movie that also has great special effect is Paddington they both share that in common.

The repose that Pan’s Labyrinth got from critics was mostly positive rotten tomatoes gave it a 95%. Based on reviews from 37 critics, it received a 98/100 score at Metacritic. Also Mark Kermode, in The Observer, labeled Pan's Labyrinth as the best film of 2006, describing it as 'an epic, poetic vision in which the grim realities of war are matched and mirrored by a descent into an underworld populated by fearsomely beautiful monsters'.

In the film there were plenty of motifs such as the watch, faun, labyrinth, the chalk. When we are first introduced to captain Vidal, we see him looking at the watch and then grumpily muttering that she and Ofelia is 15 minutes late. This moment perfectly captured his whole character throughout the entire film. The Captain loves things to be on exact and in order. He also wants everything in his control sort of my way or no way mentality. He also wants everything to be working on his time and the way he exactly stated for it to be done. The watch also symbolizes his attachment to his pride which was passed on to him by his father who struck it on a rock before dying fighting in the army. The movie’s name, Pan’s Labyrinth, relates to the Greek mythological god Pan. In Greek mythology Pan is the god of nature , shepherds and flocks. The movie depicts the Roman mythological version though which is called Faun. The Faun’s labyrinth is what the main protagonist, Ofelia, gets lost into. Even though she is warned by Mercedes not to go into the labyrinth she does and in the process dies. Adding to that, faun here does not appear to retain his human half as it does into works of mythology and is all in all a monstery goat form, symbolizing the whole movie’s fairy tale of monsters. The labyrinth itself is symbolic in the movie. It showed Ofelia’s desire to escape her current life and reality. She doesn’t want to accept the Captain as her father. Ofelia dislikes her stay at the mansion in the woods with captain Vidal. She asks her mother to leave but she refuses. She even asked Mercedes to take her away from that place. But the only escape she finds in the whole film is the labyrinth, which itself is riddled with many mysteries and dangers. The chalk that was given to Ofelia by the Faun helps her create doors and entrances to wherever she wants. This also showed a deep desire of Ofelia’s to escape her current environment. The chalk symbolizes her very desire of opening a door to where ever she wishes to escape to.

The sound that plays in the movie adds suspense in moment in that film that are in tense for example when Ofeila is running away from the Pale Man, a monster in the fantasy realm. It gets faster and the volume of the sound gets louder and louder as the monster gets closer. This she leave the fantasy realm back to the real world then it gets quieter.

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In the film both the cultural context and the film element are related to each other and help enhance each other. The historical background is related to mise-en-scene when they had to make the costumes and choose which ones the actor would be wearing in the film the captain is seen wearing military clothes throughout the film. The historical part influences that way the background and the way the set was set. Also the geographical location also influences it too. The way economic status influences the costumes in the film and how things are done role that some of the actors play as well.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
Research and investigation of techniquesTechniques usedB. Logistic Regression
2. Conclusion

The customer satisfaction has a huge impact on service delivery of any business. A simple word of mouth opinion structures the business environment to enhance their productivity and delivery. With such impact from customers, it is essential to keep them on track, to know the value of the product and service. The approach used for this project is to analyze the users of digital media, to check if they could continue the business with the organization, if not, make them to do business with help of more service delivery. For this analysis, a sample of digital media user’s data was considered, to know if they could possibly churn in future. This prediction was done with the help of machine learning techniques. The tool used for this analysis was Rapidminer. The output was shown with accurate results in statistical representation.

Introduction

In general, CRM (Customer Relationship Management) is a tool which helps organization to maintain the relationship between the buyers and customer’s interaction, track their records and accounts. It helps them to improve the customer satisfaction. For an analysis, a sample data of digital media was considered for churn prediction. This analysis is to predict whether if a customer would opt to stay with organization even after the contract period. This is similar to attrition model. Customer retention is an important aspect in in any organization, where it shows the level of company’s performance from low to high. The attrition is also one of the major employments of Data mining.

In current era, everything is becoming digital. The usage of digital media is becoming a necessity for the survival in business environment. This helps the organizations and customers to get updated on the trend for their own purposes. There are several forms of digital media in various formats such as audio, video, images and graphical representations. Considering the attrition model, there are three types namely voluntary attrition, involuntary attrition and expected attrition. If a customer wanted to switch to another company, it is voluntary attrition. Involuntary attrition also known as forced attrition is when the customer is terminated by the company for any reason, some common reasons are unpaid bills. Expected attrition is when the customer no longer is available in the target area, for instance when a customer moves to another place. There are multiple methods to predict the outcome of this project. The main background of this project is to look on Survival analysis. In this analysis, the machine learning techniques are employed to check the variation between them. They are Deep learning and Logistic regression. With the help of such techniques, the best accurate method will be known and can be taken for consideration. To perform this analysis, a tool called ‘Rapidminer’ was used.

Research and investigation of techniques

There are various techniques available to implement and get results from the prediction of churn analysis of customers in digital media. The techniques can be of a machine learning technique such as Bayesian network, Deep learning or decision trees. In other way, it can also be a statistical method of prediction through Logistic regression, which performs mainly between dependent variable and other variable when the dependent variable is dichotomous. There were some previous works which was done on this project with certain techniques. All those techniques gave mere output as expected. The dataset used for this project is very much balanced. This helps the ML techniques to perform analysis and give effective results. In case of Imbalanced, the techniques will not work and efficient results will not be available. However, for imbalanced datasets, there is a technique called Oversampling Technique, which deals with classification problems, has two types. They are Synthetic minority oversampling technique and Adaptive synthetic sampling technique. This technique helps in balancing the datasets, which helps in performing the analysis. Another popular technique used for Churn analysis is CART, which is Classification and Regression Tree model. This is the branch of Decision tree model. This technique mainly deals with classification and misclassification problems in the dataset. The other popular model for this analysis that was used was Support Vector Machine (SVM) model. This model also works mainly on classification linearity problems. It is effective in working on linear and non-linear cases. The above mentioned models are not limited, but were worth to mention on using for this churn analysis. It has a special way to apply on certain hypothesis to be more effective.

Techniques used

As discussed earlier, many important techniques are available in use. But in this project, only two techniques are used to find the churn analysis in digital media. These techniques are so popular and widely used for such kind of project in churn analysis. This technique helps us not only in predicting the outcome, but also helps us statistically with all factors that are leading for a customer to either stay or go for another network. The dataset used for this project has 21 columns. The column ‘Churn’ is the dependent variable. It is a dichotomous variable with yes or no. The Independent variables are Senior citizen, Gender, Tenure months, Phone service, Multiple lines, Internet service, Online security, Online backup, Device protection, Tech support, Streaming TV & Movies, Contract period, Paperless billing, Payment method, Monthly charges and Total charges.

A. Neural Networks (Deep Learning)

This is one of the popular algorithms, in the area of prediction analysis. It is one of the branches of machine learning techniques. This big data processing is able to analyze large amount of data at a particular time, however it may also take some amount of time to run the dataset if the data volume is very high. This technique is more flexible and scalable. The analysis was performed using the Rapidminer tool. In this test, accuracy is calculated with the overall variables. The metric type for this test is binominal. The confusion matrix algorithm is used for the statistical classification of the dataset. With the help of simulation, a deep understanding is analyzed with what sort of customer prefer amenities with bills they receive. To analyze the performance, tests such as Precision, AUC, sensitivity, specificity, recall, f measure and accuracy were performed.

B. Logistic Regression

This is also one of the methods of Machine learning techniques. This is the statistical method of prediction. This method could be the best technique for this project as it deals with customer attrition cases. This analysis is significant when the dependent variable is dichotomous. The output is coded as 0 or 1. Only binary classification is followed in this method. Logistic regression classified into binomial, ordinal or multinomial. This regression helps users in describing the data. It also helps in explaining the link between dichotomous variable and independent variable. The analysis was performed using the Rapidminer tool. In this model, the co-efficient, standard co efficient, standard error, z-value and p-value of each attributes were analyzed. There is a lift chart, where the relationship between target and population was examined. To check on complete performance, tests such as accuracy, AUC, sensitivity, specificity, recall, f measure and precision were performed.

Conclusion

Thus, we analyzed the customer churning on digital media users with a sample data. Several reasons were available as reason for a customer to switch service providers. To see a deep view on attrition, couple of data mining techniques was used, implemented the approach and the results were displayed. To understand the /technique, justification of the usage was also discussed. The analysis was performed using the Rapidminer tool. The tool helps to vary the output in the form of bars and graphs. Two important machine learning techniques were considered; they are Deep learning and Logistic regression. Logistic regression found out to be the best model for this analysis, with the help of values from accuracy and ROC curves. Since this model deals mostly with dependent variable, when it is dichotomous, it predicts and evaluates accurate results. From the models analyzed, it is said that customer attrition was caused mainly because of contract period and monthly subscriptions. To strengthen this analysis, few tests were made through logistic regression and it pinpoints key reasons where the customers might fall and leave the company. To overcome this solution, companies would need to re work on their subscription methods to retain customers and analyze them of sticking to the same company.

Table of contents

1. Introduction
2. Definition of Flora
3. Definition of Fauna
4. Conclusion

Introduction

Flora and fauna are not common English terms. However, they are often used in science classes in college. When you use these terms, you simply suggest to a listener or reader that you could come from natural science background. Well, that’s probably the only similarity between the two English nouns. In this paper, you will learn about the flora and fauna definition, the differences between the two words, and much more. But just before we walk you through the differences, we will start with the separate definitions.

Definition of Flora

Essentially, it is a term used to describe the plants from a particular region at a given time. This falls into collective group known as biota. A lot of times, fungi can also be referred to as flora. Beyond the meaning that has to do with the natural distribution of plants within a given geographic location, the term is also used to make reference to that plant in relation to its scientific description. More often than not, it is used when the plants are grouped or their features are discussed in detail. These details could be flowering times, geographic distribution, flowering times, and illustrations. Other details may include data on plant chemistry, chromosome numbers, and a host of others. It is interesting to know that botanists have been writing on flora since the 1600s.

As many people continue to search, “What is flora and fauna?” we believe that we have able to satisfactorily explain what former is. Now, we shall take a step farther to explain its importance in our world today. With that said, truly, these plants play a key role in the lives of nomads and their animals. In certain places across sub-Saharan Africa where nomadic agriculture is a commonplace, cows graze on lush grasses. In such places, the herdsmen are often compelled to move their herds of cattle to other parts of the region with fairly good vegetation for grazing, passing through semi-arid deserts. In West Africa, for example, the nomads keep moving from one location to another in search of nutritious grasses for their animals.

Aside from serving as a feed for animals, plants also control erosion, serve as food to locals, improve the environment by constantly releasing carbon dioxide, absorb excess energy from sunlight, serve as herbs for pharm companies, and many others.

Definition of Fauna

On the other hand, fauna is the name used to denote all the animals living in a particular location at a given time. Among zoologists and paleontologists, fauna refers to a collection of animals that inhabit a particular location at a given time. These could be a forest or any place where these animals naturally exist. Before now, the plants that grew naturally in a given location had a way of influencing the herbivorous animals found in that location. However, globalization has altered this myth as animals can be moved in their droves from one location to another. This could be for business or survival purposes.

In Australia, for example, research says that its fauna is predominantly a huge variety of animals. A look at their distribution shows that mammals make up 83%. In some parts of the continent, you will see reptiles take up 89% of the entire fauna, and then fish will have a less significant percentage of 24. Finally, amphibians control 93% of the continent’s fauna. So far, we have given a detailed definition of fauna. Now, we will go ahead to explain the importance of fauna.

With respect to fauna, it plays a critical role in man’s everyday activity. Let’s put that into perspective. In many rural communities across West Africa, locals use animals for farming. Given that mechanized agriculture is completely non-existent in such communities, animals take the place of tractors and bulldozers. Also, they are used for transportation in such localities, and they equally serve as food. In urban centers, animals are used for games (like horse racing). The importance of fauna in the life of man is just endless.

Conclusion

In this essay we have been able do justice to the topic, flora and fauna definition. Consequently, we have no doubt in our mind that you now know so much about flora vs fauna. Indeed, knowing that difference between flora and fauna is important because an uninformed person is a deformed person. That said, we must emphasize that fauna feeds on flora, but the collection of both two terms also called biota.

Table of contents

1. Meaning of words
2. What is an affiliation?
3. Works Cited

Meaning of words

If someone asked you what definition you would use for the word belonging, what would you say? Would you say the feeling of fitting in with people; would you say owning or possessing something; or would you say something else? The word “belonging” has several different meanings depending on when it is used. Often, the definition you choose for a word depends on the situation and context. Some definitions, however, may have a more powerful meaning than other definitions of the same word.

The meaning of a word changes depending on how it’s used. When a word is used in one scenario, it could mean one thing. When that same word is used in another scenario, it could mean something entirely different. For example, the word belonging could be used in the following sentence: Jeremy felt a sense of belonging with the other people in his robotics club. The same world could be also used in this sentence: Jackson stole a pencil belonging to Brendan. This is the same word as in the previous sample, however used in a completely different way. What definition you use for a certain word depends heavily on the context and where it is used.

What is an affiliation?

One definition of belonging is the feeling of fitting in with other people around you, like the way Reich uses the word. When you are around other people who have similar interests as you, you will feel a sense of belonging and feel included with the group. Often, if someone feels like they belong with a group of people, they will feel more comfortable and generally be happier than if they felt left out. This definition is similar to the definition that the Merriam-Webster Dictionary gives: to be a member of a club, organization, or set.

An example of belonging would be when a college student finds a group of people at lunch that are in the same major as him or her. Those people will probably have similar interests to the college student so he or she will have something in common with the other students. This common ground can lead to a sense of belonging to the student. This situation is similar to Reich’s use of the word where he says, “…one of humankind’s deepest needs is to belong”. He is referring to how people depend on things like family and community to survive and lead happier lives. This, however, is not the only definition for the word belong.

Another definition of belonging is to be the property or possession of; to be owned by. This definition is a more literal sense of the word and is extended from the word belong. This meaning of the word would be used when you’re talking about someone possessing an object or idea. An example of this use of the word would be “Ronald borrowed a computer belonging to Daniel.” This definition of belonging can be thought of as a synonym from possessing or owning. This definition has less of a powerful meaning than the first definition does.

I believe that the first definition for belonging, the one that Reich also uses in his book, is the strongest. This definition has more power behind it from its implications whereas the other definition just means owning something, a much less significant meaning. This definition is more likely to be used than the definition meaning possession since there are more synonyms for the second definition that can be used instead. The second definition is less needed because of these other synonyms for it, and therefore it has less power behind it as opposed to the first definition, which would be used more often due to its lack of synonyms.

Picking the right definition for a word when writing an essay, story, or any other papers is important. The way that you use your words in the writing can completely change the meaning and message of it. The same word can have several different meanings to it depending on when and where you use it. Belonging most significantly means the sense that a person belongs to a group of people. It may have other definitions for other use cases, but this one holds the most significance. Other definitions of this word have many synonyms that also describe the same thing, whereas this definition doesn’t have many synonyms to use in its place.

Works Cited

1. “Belong, v.” Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, 2019, Accessed 9 Sept. 2019, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/belong.
2. “Belong, v.” Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2019, Accessed 8 Sept. 2019, https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/17506.
3. Reich, Robert B. The Common Good. Vintage Books, 2019.

The Devil Wears Hope and Despair is a multi-faceted drawing. There are three separate components that are distinct in style and content, yet remain cohesive in the form of a dress. The top panel, covering the chest and stomach, is an interior scene. In the next panel below, a black and white motif. In an upside-down house, four women are kneeling to lift up a resting man. Around this are structured shapes and linear patterns. Other details include two stylized cats chasing a mouse, a heart with a dagger through it, and above, the title. The last panel of feathers is almost purely decoration, yet it remains stylistically unified to the rest of the piece with linear designs and the primary triadic color scheme. Altogether, The Devil is a feminine object. Although it is for evening, the dress is meant to represent something women have to wear, live in and experience daily.

The title, The Devil Wears Hope and Despair, was modified from T.S. Eliot’s poem “Ash Wednesday” and is an important part of the concept. It comes from the third part of the poem, as the first stanza reads:

“At the first turning of the second stair / I turned and saw below / The same shape twisted on the banister / Under the vapour in the fetid air / Struggling with the devil of the stairs who wears / The deceitful/ face of hope and of despair”.

I reference this poem because it depicts a struggle with faith. Faith and religion are family matters; significant to upbringing, even in a modern, secular world, they are ingrained in our social history. In the Western world, Christianity tends to vilify women, Eve for example, and restrict women to subservient positions. Even as the United States makes strides in equality, there still lingers an expectation that women will take on the role in the home. Even if a woman is working, children and home are still her domain and her responsibility. Sexism is reinforced by religion and the inferior positions women are given in society. The first part of the title, “The Devil”, is the Christian archetype, a woman. So, women wear “Hope and Despair”, “Hope” being the future and “Despair” being the past and the present. So the dress symbolizes a woman’s reality and all that home life encompasses.

The first panel of the dress depicts a living room with a sleeping dog. I used deep, one-point perspective to create the illusion of space. In the center of the background is a fireplace drawn with white flames, which echoes the haunting white door propped open on the right and the white of the carpet. The simple white, red, and blue carpet leads the eye to a resting Greyhound, whose head is turned nervously to the right. The room follows a primary triadic color scheme. I chose these colors because they are associated with childhood, as most toys are decorated with primary colors, and convey an ambiguous message. Red can express strength or aggression; blue is calm and cold; yellow is optimistic. There is not a clear message in content. In color, there is an uneasiness to this interior space, but it is juxtaposed with the comforting subjects of hearth and home. An aggressive, saturated red is the overwhelming color that envelops the piece.

Then, a white door is propped open, mirroring the white of the flames in the fireplace. I highlight these two aspects of the room to compare them. Fire can provide warmth, but can also burn your house down. Doors may open and reveal a happy visitor; likewise they may welcome a cruel guest. The duality of these objects reflects the essence of the home. Home can be safe or unsafe, heaven or hell. Your home’s identity is created by the people who live there. I purposefully excluded any figures from this panel to create anticipation and uncertainty. Without a figure to fixate upon, the room itself is waiting to be occupied and supply meaning. The narrative of the first panel remains ambiguous on purpose, so that the viewer can project their own experiences onto the room.

The black and white panel balances out the saturation of the interior scene and conveys a clear, simple message. It is a respite from intense color and ambiguity. Four thin, black and white female figures hold up a fat, sleeping man. This is a very blatant way to show sexism and the power dynamic in the family. The figures are contained in an upside down house, which depicts disorder. Below them are two cats and a mouse, predator and the prey. Those with less physical strength have less power, this is the life of women and mice. (The linear objects surrounding the scene makes it mechanical. The objects are meant to convey the mechanical way in which people live.) Most people do not overstep the boundaries that their gender has given them. Women and men are just playing the role assigned and expected of them; they are cogs in the machine.

An artist who has inspired me throughout my life has been Louise Bourgeois. I grew up near Williamstown, MA and would often see these giant metal eyes peering out into the horizon. When I was a kid, I called it the “eyeball museum” and as scary as the eyes were, their familiarity brought me a lot of comfort. When I grew older and fell in love with Louise Bourgeois’ Maman and other sculptures, I was shocked that Eyes (Nine Elements) was her work. Her work is always emotionally intense and confessional. She dredges up the betrayals she experienced in childhood and uses anger as a tool to break and create her work.; she is instinctual. I like to create work in a similar way, by letting my subconscious take over and seeing what comes out. The Destruction of the Father (1974) by Bourgeois is a sculpture in which she expresses her hatred for her father. Speaking about her image, Bourgeois says:

“The piece is basically a table, the awful terrifying family dinner table headed by the father who sits and gloats. And the others, the wife, the children, what can they do. They sit there, in silence. The mother, of course, tries to satisfy the tyrant, her husband. The children are full of exasperation … My father would get nervous looking at us, and he would explain to all of us what a great man he was. So, in exasperation, we grabbed the man, threw him on the table, dismembered him and proceeded to devour him” (55 Coxton).

This piece is made out of vague, bodily blob forms surrounding and consuming a table. While, in medium, it is not similar to my piece, The Destruction’s focal point is a dinner table. Like the living room, the dinner table is a centerpiece of the family - where the drama unfolds. In my piece, common places, such the living room and house, are twisted in more subtle ways, the message being more ambiguous and less hateful than Bourgeois’. However, her keen ability to express her emotional reflexes excites and inspires me to do the same.

Oftentimes, the truth is muffled because it makes other people uncomfortable. This is one of the reasons why I chose to cut this drawing into the form of a dress. Not only does it denote femininity and work as a metaphor for the female condition, but it also makes it accessible. When artwork depicts a complicated and heavy subject matter, it can be hard to look at for a long time. Cutting the drawing into a easily recognizable and beloved form makes the message easier to receive. Even more, the form of the dress gives many complicated ideas one, organized body. Bourgeois has given this explanation on her own work: “I am interested in finding an order out of chaos” (29 Kotik). In that statement, she offers so much truth. My goal, the artist’s goal, is to distill complicated emotions, ideas, ambitions into pure form. That is why I created The Devil, to say something hard in a simple way.

The five milestones of early childhood development contain linguistic broadening, playing (social skills), self-identity, gender identity, and locomotion. Language development begins with informal and formal education where the child imitates his parents and teachers (those around him). Learning the alphabet and simple words are precious keys which unlocks the world of communication to him. Since he or she has already gone beyond the Id stage, guided by instinct and crying, the child is acquiring grammar and vocabulary skills. Playing becomes more and more crucial to a child’s feeling at home and bonding with peers and family; also, the “playground gives children freedom to be physically active, but the playground can also be an outdoor learning laboratory with numerous exciting and challenging activities” (Alexander 2008). It is these challenges which exerts and pushes the mind to think of strategies and problem-solving skills. Playing, the development of games enhances the child’s ability to think, learn the rules, set goals, and devise tactics to win. The playground becomes an education field where frequent interaction educates him or her. “Children use fine and gross motor skills in their play. They react to each other socially. They think about what they are doing or going to do. They use language to talk to each other or to themselves and they very often respond emotionally to the play activity. The integration of these different types of behaviors is key to the cognitive development of young children” (Fox 2008).

Identity is wrapped up in not only being acquainted with one’s name, but also one’s race, family, nature, and reality. In early childhood, the child learns from his parents who he or she is. Connected with self-identity is gender identity. “By the age of 2, children can usually accurately identify others as either male or female, based on appearance” (Hutchinson 2008 ). The child understand gender to be based on the genitals where “genital constancy has been found to be associated with an understanding of the relationship between gender and genitals” (Hutchinson 2008). At this point, the child is usually aware of his phallus and can distinguish between a girl and a boy, through the genitals and physical characteristics. Gender preferences also begin to be moulded in the psyche as far as clothes, toys, and games are concerned where “existing cultural standards about gender are pervasively built into adult interactions with young children and the reward systems which shape behaviour” (Hutchinson 2008). As far as race identity goes, “children first learn their own racial identity before they are able to identify the race of others…however identification is limited to skin colour” (Hutchinson 2008).

Locomotion is a continuous course of action where the baby has to be carried, being totally dependent on the adult for transportation from one place to the next. Dependency on the parent or caretaker for locomotion lasts on average one year, until he or she learns to move on the floor, and crawl on all fours. Children “not only have to develop balance control in a dynamic situation; they also have to produce the successive phases of disequilibrium and balance recovery which are necessary for gait (Savelsbergh 1993). Savelsberg posits that developing locomotive competence in early childhood requires the mastery of balance control and posture control. At first movement may have to be assisted but as confidence grows, one step at a time, the limb muscles become strengthened to stand and walk. As the child’s observational skills deepen, he or she sees others walking upright on the feet, and when encouraged to do so, will make valiant efforts at gaining equilibrium while attempting to move forward. Locomotion is critical to early childhood development since learning is never stagnant or static, one must move to experiment more to gain wider understanding.

Early Cognitive Development

Children learn by repetition. The process of learning is greatly enforced and the child learns to perceive, observe, and imitate. Piaget said ‘‘intelligence is a basic life function that helps an organism adapt to its environment” (Sigelman, C. 2009). The child’s cognition covers two main phases in early childhood development, which are the sensorimotor and preoperational wherein “according to Piaget each new stage of cognitive development is a coherent mode of thinking applied” (Sigelman 2009). The sensorimotor (birth-2years) stage encompasses the time period where the infant learns to appreciate the world through his senses. Touch, sight, sound and taste are essential in educating the child about his or her environment. The sensorimotor stage is further subdivided into reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of reactions, and tertiary circular reactions. Reflexivity demonstrates the child’s innate tendency to grasp, cry, and suck. Primary circular reaction explains the repetitiveness of certain activities which in turn help pattern habit, namely sucking the thumb or pacifier. The secondary circular reaction alludes to repetition of other actions to elicit a particular response, namely pressing a button which plays music. Coordination of actions shows the child’s delight in doing a recurrent action and the intentionality of the practice such as throwing an object. Tertiary circular reaction is limited to further discovery in provoking and repeating actions and observing their reactions. The preoperational (2-7 years) demarcates the time where the child learns to connect language to signs and symbols and has a broader vocabulary at the disposal for self-expression. “Piaget maintained that cognitive development influences language development, Vygotszky argued that language shapes thought in important ways and that thought changes fundamentally when we begin to think in words” (Sigelman 2009). Therefore, through language, the child can identify objects in front of him/her and refer to them in their absence. Also, the competence to dream and imagine becomes more active as the child still operates by intuition. The child still stumbles in separating fantasy (appearance) and reality.

In sum, the early childhood period is pervaded with activity (both inherent and learned) which contributes to the overall experience. The psychoanalytic, psychosocial, co-constructive and cognitive empower the child to learn and growth in an atmosphere conducive to holistic development. The theories concerning early childhood development to maturity marks the criticality of each stage as the child passes through childhood to adult maturity. These factors also impress the mind of the onus of both parents and teachers in ensuring that kids are provided with the much-needed support and encouragement to learn, make mistakes, and mature. Development is not only the child’s gradual aging, for there are many hindered by many causes and retain a childish outlook; true development comes with active participation and interaction which propels the child to be creative, expressive, and as a result progressive. æ